Once in a Lifetime, part 2
The Great Epidemic of 735–737
- Written
- 735–737 (entries); compiled by 797
- Place
- Heijō-kyō (Nara), Japan
- Language
- Classical Chinese (kanbun)
- Kind of source
- annals
- Reading time
- 8 minutes
- Difficulty
- Moderate
- Intensity
- Medium: a steady list of deaths and one order to bury the rotting dead; nothing graphic
Japanese smallpox epidemic (735–737)SmallpoxBuddhismKami worship (Japan)Rulers and courtsRelief and public measuresSpeeches and edictsDeath and burial
Once in a Lifetime themes: Unknowns, Exhaustion, Aftermath
In 737, four brothers who ran the Japanese government died within four months of one another. They were the sons of Fujiwara no Fuhito, whom the court had honored after his death with the highest office of all, and by 737 they held some of the highest posts in the government themselves. All four appear in the entries below, each in a short notice of his death.
The entries come from the Chronicles of Japan, Continued (Shoku Nihongi 續日本紀), the official history of the Japanese court from 697 to 791. Like the court histories of China, it was written in Classical Chinese and arranged day by day. Officials kept records as events happened, and teams of court scholars, among them Sugano no Mamichi, later edited them into forty books, presented to the emperor in 797, sixty years after the epidemic. The emperor who speaks in these edicts is Shōmu.
The epidemic first appeared in 735 in Kyushu, the southwestern island closest to Korea. It spread widely that year, eased, and returned in 737, worse than before, when it struck the capital and the court. The court answered in three ways. It made offerings to the kami, the gods of Japan. It ordered Buddhist monks to read sutras, scriptures believed to protect the state. And, following Chinese political thought, the emperor blamed his own lack of virtue and answered with mercy: tax relief, grants of rice, medicines, and pardons for prisoners. No one at the time knew what caused the disease.
These are government records, kept by officials for officials. They tell us what the court ordered and whom it lost, not how ordinary people lived or died. The common people appear as a group, in numbers too large to count; only men of rank have their deaths recorded by name. The entries are also brief, and the later editors chose what to keep.
As you read, notice how the entries change between 735 and 737: whom the epidemic strikes, what the court tries, and what the emperor says about why it happened. Notice too how the record sets famine relief, sutra readings, and the death of a minister side by side, in the order they happened.
What we know now
Smallpox, the disease most historians identify here, was caused by the variola virus. It spread from person to person, mostly through droplets from coughing and sneezing during close contact, and through bedding or clothing soiled by the sores; about three in ten people who caught it died (CDC 2024). Ancient DNA shows that variola strains were already circulating in northern Europe from about 600 (Mühlemann et al. 2020). Historians, following William Wayne Farris, estimate that the epidemic of 735–737 killed about 30 percent of the people of Japan (Isoda 2020; Rod-ari 2020). After a worldwide vaccination campaign, the last natural case occurred in 1977, and in 1980 the World Health Assembly declared smallpox eradicated (CDC 2024).
Read alongside
- How to Care for the Sick in the Epidemic of 737
In 737, at the height of this epidemic, the Council of State sent the provinces written instructions on caring for the sick. Compare its practical advice with the offerings, sutra readings, and amnesties recorded here.
- The Pump in Broad Street, 1854
In 1831, as cholera approached Britain, the government's Board of Health in London published a notice telling towns and villages how to prepare. Compare what each government believed it could do against an epidemic, and whom each expected to act.
The edited translation, in simplified modern English. Bracketed words were added for clarity; [...] marks a cut. Tap a note number to read the note. Point at or tap a phrase to see the original behind it. Phrase links checked in a separate review.
Tenpyō 7 (735)
Eighth month, twelfth day.1 The emperor gave an order: “I hear that many people in the Dazaifu2 have lately died of the epidemic. I wish to heal those struck by the epidemic qi3 and so save the people’s lives. Let offerings be made to the kami4 of that region, with prayers on the people’s behalf. Let the great temple of the Dazaifu and the temples of its other provinces read the Diamond Sutra.5 Send envoys to give relief to the sick, and give them medicines as well. And let the governors of the provinces from Nagato on toward the capital, or their assistants, keep themselves strictly pure by fasting, or else perform the road-feast rites.”6
Twenty-third day. The Dazaifu reported: “Epidemic sores7 have broken out widely in the provinces under us, and the common people are all sick in bed. For this year we ask to stop sending tax goods to the capital.” The request was granted.
Intercalary eleventh month, seventeenth day. The emperor decreed: “Disasters and strange signs8 keep appearing, and the pestilence does not end. So I declare a general amnesty throughout the realm. [...] To the old who are one hundred or more, give three koku [large measures] of grain; to those ninety or more, two koku; to those eighty or more, one koku. For dutiful sons and obedient grandsons, devoted husbands and faithful wives, honor the gates of their homes and villages, and free them from labor duty for life. As for widowers and widows, orphans and the childless old, and the gravely ill who cannot support themselves, let the local officials give them relief as they see fit.”
This year the harvest was very poor. From summer to winter, people throughout the realm suffered from pea sores (commonly called mogasa), and many died before their time.
Tenpyō 8 (736)
Tenth month, twenty-second day. The emperor said: “I hear that in recent years public business has grown heavy in the provinces under the Dazaifu, and the people have had much labor to do. On top of that, the epidemic sores of last winter left men and women alike in distress. Farm work was neglected, and the five grains did not grow well. Let this year’s rice-field tax be waived, so that the people can go on living.”
Tenpyō 9 (737)
First month, twenty-seventh day. Mibu no Utamaro, senior secretary of the embassy to Silla,9 and Ōkura no Maro, junior secretary, entered the capital with the others. The ambassador, Abe no Tsugumaro, had died while the ship lay at anchor at Tsushima. The vice-ambassador, Ōtomo no Minaka, had fallen ill and could not enter the capital.
Fourth month, seventeenth day. Fujiwara no Fusasaki, Councilor10 and Minister of People’s Affairs, died. He was to be given a minister’s funeral, but his family firmly declined it. Fusasaki was the second son of Fuhito, who was named Chancellor after his death.
Nineteenth day. In the provinces under the Dazaifu the epidemic sores were spreading, and many of the common people died. The emperor ordered offerings to be made at the shrines of the region, with prayers. Relief was also given to poor households struck by the sickness, along with medicines to treat them.
Fifth month, first day. There was an eclipse of the sun. Six hundred monks were invited into the palace to read the Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra.
Nineteenth day. The emperor said: “Since the fourth month, epidemic and drought have come together, and the rice seedlings in the fields have scorched and withered. So we have prayed to the mountains and rivers and made offerings to the kami. But we have seen no result, and even now the people are suffering. Truly it is my lack of virtue that has brought this disaster. I wish to spread kindness and mercy, to save the people from their troubles. Let the provinces and districts review the cases of people wrongly imprisoned. Let them cover exposed bones and bury the rotting dead. Let wine be forbidden and the slaughter of animals stopped. As for the aged, widowers and widows, orphans and the childless old, and the monks, nuns, men, and women of the capital who lie sick and cannot support themselves, give them relief as each one needs. Let gifts also be given to all civil and military officials who hold posts. I declare a general amnesty throughout the realm. [...]”
Sixth month, first day. Court was suspended, because the officials of all the government offices were sick with the epidemic.
Tenth day. Ōyake no Ōkuni, who held rank but no post, died.
Eleventh day. Ono no Oyu, Senior Assistant Governor-General of the Dazaifu, died.
Eighteenth day. Prince Nagata, who held rank but no post, died.
Twenty-third day. Tajihi no Agatamori, Middle Counselor, died. He was the son of Shima, Minister of the Left.
Autumn, seventh month, fifth day. Relief was given to the common people suffering from famine and epidemic in three provinces: Yamato, Izu, and Wakasa. Prince Ōno, who held rank but no post, died.
Tenth day. Relief was given to the people suffering from epidemic and famine in three provinces: Iga, Suruga, and Nagato.
Thirteenth day. Fujiwara no Maro, Councilor and Minister of War, died. He was the fourth son of Fuhito, who was named Chancellor after his death.
Seventeenth day. Kudara no Konikishi Rōgu,11 who held rank but no post, died.
Twenty-third day. A general amnesty was declared throughout the realm. The emperor said: “Lately the epidemic qi has been breaking out widely. We have prayed and made offerings to the kami, but we have still found no relief. And now the Minister of the Right is ill, and he cannot sleep or eat in peace. Out of pity for him, I declare a general amnesty throughout the realm to save him from this suffering. [...]”
Twenty-fifth day. The emperor sent Tachibana no Moroe, Controller of the Left, and Ki no Ohito, Controller of the Right, to the house of the Minister of the Right. There they granted him the highest court rank and appointed him Minister of the Left. He died that same day. Nakatomi no Nashiro and others were sent to oversee the funeral, and the government supplied whatever was needed. Muchimaro was the eldest son of Fuhito, who was named Chancellor after his death.
Eighth month, first day. Tachibana no Sai, Master of the Household of the Emperor’s Mother and Commander of the Right Watch, died.
Second day. An order went out to the four Home Provinces, the two supervised districts, and the provinces of the Seven Circuits.12 Monks and nuns were to purify themselves and bathe, and to read the Golden Light Sutra two or three times a month. On the six fast days of each month, the killing of living things was forbidden.
Fifth day. Fujiwara no Umakai, Councilor, Minister of Ceremonial, and Governor-General of the Dazaifu, died. He was the third son of Fuhito, who was named Chancellor after his death.
Thirteenth day. The emperor said: “I have ruled the realm for many years now. Yet my good influence still does not reach the people, and the common folk are not at peace. I lie awake all night until dawn, and this is what weighs on me. Then, since spring, a calamitous qi has suddenly broken out. Truly many of the common people of the realm have died, and not a few officials have died too, leaving their posts empty. Truly it is because of my lack of virtue that this disaster has come. I look up to Heaven in shame and dread, and I dare not rest at ease. So let the common people be generously relieved, so that they can survive. This year’s taxes are cancelled throughout the realm. So is the rice the common people owe on public and private loans: for public rice, loans made up to the eighth year [736], and for private rice, up to the seventh [735]. Some kami in the provinces can raise wind and rain and have shown their power on behalf of the state, yet have not received offerings. All of them shall be added to the list of those that do. And let ranks be granted to the chief palace priest, the shrine maidens of the palace, of Ikasuri, and of Ikushima, and the priests of all the kami.”
Fifteenth day. For the peace of the realm and the calm of the land, seven hundred monks were invited to fifteen places in the palace, where they read the Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra and the Golden Light Sutra. Four hundred people were ordained, and 578 more in the Home Provinces and the provinces of the Seven Circuits.
In the spring of this year the epidemic sores broke out on a great scale. They came first from Tsukushi [Kyushu]. Through the summer and on into autumn, from the high nobles down to the common people of the realm, people died one after another, more than could be counted. Nothing like it had happened in recent times.
Notes
- Japan used a lunar calendar from China. Each month began at a new moon, about a month after the Western month of the same number. Every few years an extra “intercalary” month kept it in step with the seasons. back
- The government headquarters for Kyushu, the southwestern island nearest Korea, and its provinces. It also received foreign envoys, so news and goods from overseas often reached Japan there first. back
- Qi (ki in Japanese) was the vital breath or energy that Chinese and Japanese thinkers saw in the body and in the world. An epidemic qi was a harmful kind, believed to carry sickness as it spread. back
- The gods and spirits of Japanese tradition, worshiped at shrines with offerings of cloth, food, and prayer. Many people believed that kami who were angered or neglected could send disease. back
- Sutras are Buddhist scriptures. Japan’s rulers ordered monks to read certain sutras aloud, believing the readings would protect the country and drive away disease and disaster. back
- Offerings made where roads entered the capital or a province, to stop evil spirits, and the diseases they brought, from coming in. back
- The chroniclers’ term means the sores of an epidemic. A later entry calls the same disease “pea sores,” commonly mogasa, after its pea-sized blisters. Most historians identify it as smallpox. back
- Rulers in Japan, following Chinese ideas, believed that Heaven sent disasters and strange signs when a ruler lacked virtue. An emperor answered by blaming himself and showing mercy through relief, amnesties, and rites. back
- Silla was a kingdom on the Korean peninsula. Tsushima is an island in the strait between Korea and Kyushu. back
- Councilor (sangi) and Middle Counselor (chūnagon) were different offices on the Council of State, the court’s governing body; a Middle Counselor ranked higher. back
- His family name means “Kings of Paekche.” They descended from the royal house of Paekche, a Korean kingdom destroyed in 660, whose nobles had settled in Japan. back
- That is, the whole country: the provinces around the capital, two small districts with their own supervisors, and the rest of Japan, grouped into seven regional circuits. back
○乙未Kinoto-hitsuji。勅曰Choku shite iwaku。如聞Kiku naraku。此日kono hi、太宰府Dazaifu ni疫死者eki ni shinuru mono多ōshi。思欲… to omoi hossu救療疫気Ekiki o kuryō shite、以済民命motte tami no inochi o sukuwan。是以Kore o motte。奉幣hei o … tatematsuri彼部kano bu no神祇jingi ni。為民祷祈焉tami no tame ni tōki seyo。又府大寺Mata fu no daiji及別国諸寺oyobi betsu no kuni no shoji ni。読金剛般若経Kongō hannya kyō o yomashimeyo。仍遣使Yotte tsukai o tsukawashite賑給疫民ekimin ni shinkyū shi。并加湯薬awasete tōyaku o kuwaeyo。又其長門以還Mata sono Nagato yori konokata諸国守no shokoku no kami、若介moshiku wa suke wa。専斎moppara imi shi。或道饗祭祀arui wa michiae no matsuri o matsure。
8th month, 12th day. An edict said: As I hear, at this time in the Dazaifu those who have died of the epidemic are many. I think and wish to rescue and treat [those struck by] the epidemic qi, and so save the people's lives. Therefore. Make offerings to the kami of that region. Pray on behalf of the people. Also, at the great temple of the Dazaifu and at the temples of the other provinces, read the Diamond Sutra. Accordingly, send envoys to give relief to the people suffering from the epidemic, and add medicines as well. Also, the governors or assistant governors of the provinces from Nagato onward [toward the capital?] shall devote themselves to purification [fasting?]. Or [perform] road-feast rites.
Eighth month, twelfth day. The emperor gave an order: “I hear that many people in the Dazaifu have lately died of the epidemic. I wish to heal those struck by the epidemic qi and so save the people’s lives. Let offerings be made to the kami of that region, with prayers on the people’s behalf. Let the great temple of the Dazaifu and the temples of its other provinces read the Diamond Sutra. Send envoys to give relief to the sick, and give them medicines as well. And let the governors of the provinces from Nagato on toward the capital, or their assistants, keep themselves strictly pure by fasting, or else perform the road-feast rites.”
- Japan used a lunar calendar from China. Each month began at a new moon, about a month after the Western month of the same number. Every few years an extra “intercalary” month kept it in step with the seasons.
- The government headquarters for Kyushu, the southwestern island nearest Korea, and its provinces. It also received foreign envoys, so news and goods from overseas often reached Japan there first.
- Qi (ki in Japanese) was the vital breath or energy that Chinese and Japanese thinkers saw in the body and in the world. An epidemic qi was a harmful kind, believed to carry sickness as it spread.
- The gods and spirits of Japanese tradition, worshiped at shrines with offerings of cloth, food, and prayer. Many people believed that kami who were angered or neglected could send disease.
- Sutras are Buddhist scriptures. Japan’s rulers ordered monks to read certain sutras aloud, believing the readings would protect the country and drive away disease and disaster.
- Offerings made where roads entered the capital or a province, to stop evil spirits, and the diseases they brought, from coming in.
○丙午Hinoe-uma。太宰府言Dazaifu mōsu。管内諸国Kannai no shokoku、疫瘡ekisō大発ōi ni okori。百姓悉臥hyakusei kotogotoku fusu。今年之間Konnen no aida、欲停貢調kōchō o todomen to hossu。許之Kore o yurusu。
8th month, 23rd day. The Dazaifu said: In the provinces under it, epidemic sores have broken out greatly. The common people are all bedridden. For the course of this year, we wish to suspend the tribute of tax goods. This was permitted.
Twenty-third day. The Dazaifu reported: “Epidemic sores have broken out widely in the provinces under us, and the common people are all sick in bed. For this year we ask to stop sending tax goods to the capital.” The request was granted.
- The chroniclers’ term means the sores of an epidemic. A later entry calls the same disease “pea sores,” commonly mogasa, after its pea-sized blisters. Most historians identify it as smallpox.
○戊戌Tsuchinoe-inu。詔Mikotonori shite。以… o motte災変Saihen数見shibashiba mie。疫癘不已ekirei yamazaru。大赦天下tenka ni taisha su。[...]高年百歳以上Kōnen hyakusai ijō ni wa賜穀三石koku sangoku o tamae。九十以上Kyūjū ijō ni wa穀二石koku nikoku。八十以上Hachijū ijō ni wa穀一石koku ikkoku。孝子Kōshi・順孫junson。義夫gifu・節婦seppu wa、表其門閭sono monryo ni arawashi。終身勿事shūshin koto seshimuru koto nakare。鰥寡Kanka惸独keidoku、篤疾之徒tokushitsu no tomogara、不能自存者mizukara son suru koto atawazaru mono wa。所在官司shozai no kanshi、量加賑恤hakarite shinjutsu o kuwaeyo。
Intercalary 11th month, 17th day. An imperial decree: Because calamitous changes have repeatedly appeared, and the pestilence does not cease, declare a general amnesty throughout the realm. All crimes from capital crimes downward [committed] before dawn on the 17th day of the intercalary 11th month of Tenpyō 7. Whether the crime is light or heavy. Already discovered or not yet discovered. Already judged or not yet judged. And including the Eight Abominations. And those that an ordinary amnesty does not pardon. All are pardoned and remitted. Private coin-casting, together with robbery and theft, are all not within the limits of the amnesty. However, those coin-casters and thieves who would receive the death penalty shall each be reduced one degree. To the aged of a hundred years and above, grant three koku of grain. Ninety and above, two koku of grain. Eighty and above, one koku of grain. Filial children and obedient grandchildren. Righteous husbands and chaste wives: mark the gates of their villages [honor their gates and village gates]. For the rest of their lives, exempt them from service. Widowers, widows, orphans, and the solitary, and the gravely ill, who cannot support themselves. The officials of the places where they live shall give relief as they judge fit.
Intercalary eleventh month, seventeenth day. The emperor decreed: “Disasters and strange signs keep appearing, and the pestilence does not end. So I declare a general amnesty throughout the realm. To the old who are one hundred or more, give three koku [large measures] of grain; to those ninety or more, two koku; to those eighty or more, one koku. For dutiful sons and obedient grandsons, devoted husbands and faithful wives, honor the gates of their homes and villages, and free them from labor duty for life. As for widowers and widows, orphans and the childless old, and the gravely ill who cannot support themselves, let the local officials give them relief as they see fit.”
- Rulers in Japan, following Chinese ideas, believed that Heaven sent disasters and strange signs when a ruler lacked virtue. An emperor answered by blaming himself and showing mercy through relief, amnesties, and rites.
是歳Kono toshi。年頗不稔toshi sukoburu minorazu。自夏至冬Natsu yori fuyu ni itaru made。天下tenka患豌豆瘡endōsō … o wazuraite〈 俗曰裳瘡zoku ni mogasa to iu。 〉夭死者多yōshi suru mono ōshi。
This year. The harvest was rather poor. From summer to winter, the realm suffered from pea sores (commonly called mogasa). Those who died young [died before their time] were many.
This year the harvest was very poor. From summer to winter, people throughout the realm suffered from pea sores (commonly called mogasa), and many died before their time.
○戊辰Tsuchinoe-tatsu。詔曰Mikotonori shite iwaku、如聞Kiku naraku。比年toshigoro、太宰所管諸国Dazai no shokan no shokoku。公事稍繁kuji yaya shigeku。労役不少rōeki sukunakarazu。加以Shikanomi narazu。去冬疫瘡kozo no fuyu no ekisō ni。男女惣困nannyo subete kurushimi。農事有廃nōji sutaruru koto ari。五穀不饒gokoku yutaka narazu。宜免今年田租Yoroshiku konnen no denso o menjite、令続民命tami no inochi o tsugashimu beshi。
10th month, 22nd day. A decree said: As I hear, in recent years, in the provinces administered by the Dazaifu, public affairs have grown somewhat burdensome. Labor services are not few. In addition to this. Last winter's epidemic sores [left] men and women all in distress. Farm work was abandoned [neglected]. The five grains were not plentiful. It is fitting to remit this year's rice-field tax, and so sustain the people's lives.
Tenth month, twenty-second day. The emperor said: “I hear that in recent years public business has grown heavy in the provinces under the Dazaifu, and the people have had much labor to do. On top of that, the epidemic sores of last winter left men and women alike in distress. Farm work was neglected, and the five grains did not grow well. Let this year’s rice-field tax be waived, so that the people can go on living.”
○辛丑Kanoto-ushi。遣新羅使Ken-Shiragi-shi no大判官daihangan従六位上ju-rokui no jō壬生使主宇太麻呂Mibu no Omi Utamaro。少判官shōhangan正七位上shō-shichii no jō大蔵忌寸麻呂Ōkura no Imiki Maro等ra入京kyō ni iru。大使Taishi従五位下ju-goi no ge阿倍朝臣継麻呂Abe no Ason Tsugumaro wa泊津嶋Tsushima ni tomarite卒shussu。副使Fukushi従六位下ju-rokui no ge大伴宿禰三中Ōtomo no Sukune Minaka wa染病yamai ni somite、不得入京kyō ni iru koto o ezu。
1st month, 27th day. The senior secretary of the envoy to Silla, junior sixth rank, upper grade, Mibu no Utamaro, the junior secretary, senior seventh rank, upper grade, Ōkura no Maro, and others entered the capital. The ambassador, junior fifth rank, lower grade, Abe no Tsugumaro, died while anchored at Tsushima. The vice-ambassador, junior sixth rank, lower grade, Ōtomo no Minaka, contracted the sickness and could not enter the capital.
First month, twenty-seventh day. Mibu no Utamaro, senior secretary of the embassy to Silla, and Ōkura no Maro, junior secretary, entered the capital with the others. The ambassador, Abe no Tsugumaro, had died while the ship lay at anchor at Tsushima. The vice-ambassador, Ōtomo no Minaka, had fallen ill and could not enter the capital.
- Silla was a kingdom on the Korean peninsula. Tsushima is an island in the strait between Korea and Kyushu.
○辛酉Kanoto-tori。参議Sangi民部卿minbukyō正三位shō-sanmi藤原朝臣房前Fujiwara no Ason Fusasaki薨kōzu。送以大臣葬儀Okuru ni daijin no sōgi o motte su。其家固辞不受Sono ie kataku jishite ukezu。房前Fusasaki wa、贈太政大臣zō daijō daijin正一位shō-ichii不比等之Fuhito no第二子也daini no ko nari。
4th month, 17th day. The Councillor and Minister of People's Affairs, senior third rank, Fujiwara no Fusasaki, died. He was to be sent off with the funeral rites of a minister. His family firmly declined and did not accept. Fusasaki was the second son of Fuhito, posthumously Chancellor, senior first rank.
Fourth month, seventeenth day. Fujiwara no Fusasaki, Councilor and Minister of People’s Affairs, died. He was to be given a minister’s funeral, but his family firmly declined it. Fusasaki was the second son of Fuhito, who was named Chancellor after his death.
- Councilor (sangi) and Middle Counselor (chūnagon) were different offices on the Council of State, the court’s governing body; a Middle Counselor ranked higher.
○癸亥Mizunoto-i。太宰管内諸国Dazai no kannai no shokoku。疫瘡時行ekisō jikō shite。百姓多死hyakusei ōku shisu。詔Mikotonori shite、奉幣hei o … tatematsurite於部内諸社bunai no shosha ni以祈祷焉motte kitō su。又賑恤貧疫之家Mata hin'eki no ie ni shinjutsu shi。并給湯薬療之awasete tōyaku o tamaite kore o ryō su。
4th month, 19th day. In the provinces under the Dazaifu, epidemic sores were going around. Many of the common people died. A decree: make offerings at the shrines within the region, and so pray. Also give relief to households that are poor and stricken by the epidemic. And give medicines to treat them.
Nineteenth day. In the provinces under the Dazaifu the epidemic sores were spreading, and many of the common people died. The emperor ordered offerings to be made at the shrines of the region, with prayers. Relief was also given to poor households struck by the sickness, along with medicines to treat them.
○五月Gogatsu甲戌朔kinoe-inu tsuitachi。日有蝕之Hi, kore o shoku suru koto ari。請僧六百人Sō roppyakunin o … shōjite、于宮中kyūchū ni。令読大般若経焉Daihannya kyō o yomashimu。
5th month, 1st day. There was an eclipse of the sun. Six hundred monks were invited into the palace, and they were made to read the Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra.
Fifth month, first day. There was an eclipse of the sun. Six hundred monks were invited into the palace to read the Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra.
○壬辰Mizunoe-tatsu。詔曰Mikotonori shite iwaku。四月以来Shigatsu yori konokata。疫旱並行eki to hideri to narabi okorite、田苗燋萎denbyō shōi su。由是Kore ni yorite。祈祷山川sansen ni kitō shi。奠祭神祇jingi ni tensai suredomo。未得効験imada kōken o ezu。至今猶苦ima ni itaru made nao kurushimu。朕以不徳Chin futoku o motte、実致茲災makoto ni kono wazawai o itaseri。思布寛仁Kanjin o shikite … to omou、以救民患motte tami no urei o sukuwan。宜令国郡Yoroshiku kokugun o shite審録寃獄enkoku o shinroku shi。掩骼hone o ōi埋胔shishimura o uzume。禁酒sake o kinji断屠hofuri o tatashimu beshi。高年之徒Kōnen no tomogara。鰥寡kanka惸独keidoku。及京内僧尼男女oyobi kyōnai no sōni nannyo。臥疾yamai ni fushite不能自存者mizukara son suru koto atawazaru mono ni wa。量加賑給hakarite shinkyū o kuwaeyo。又普賜Mata amaneku … tamau文武職事以上bunbu no shokuji ijō ni物mono o。大赦天下Tenka ni taisha su。[...]
5th month, 19th day. An edict said: Since the fourth month, epidemic and drought have occurred together, and the seedlings in the fields are scorched and withered. Because of this, we prayed to the mountains and rivers and made offerings and rites to the kami (the gods of heaven and earth), but have not yet obtained any effect [efficacy?]. Up to now [the people] still suffer. I, through my lack of virtue, have truly brought about this calamity. I think to spread leniency and benevolence, so as to relieve the troubles of the people. Let the provinces and districts examine and record wrongful imprisonments [unjust cases?]. Cover skeletons and bury rotting corpses. Prohibit wine and stop slaughter. Those of advanced years, widowers, widows, orphans and the solitary, and monks, nuns, men and women within the capital who lie sick and cannot support themselves, shall be given relief (grants of rice and goods) according to measure. Also, bestow goods generally on civil and military officials holding posts and above. Declare a general amnesty throughout the realm. For crimes committed before dawn of the 19th day of the 5th month of Tenpyō 9, all from capital crimes downward shall be pardoned. The eight abominations, robbers [bandits?], officials who accept goods and bend the law, supervisors and custodians who themselves steal, stealing what one supervises, robbery by force and theft, intentional killing of a person, private minting of coins, and those whom ordinary amnesties do not pardon, are not within the scope of the amnesty.
Nineteenth day. The emperor said: “Since the fourth month, epidemic and drought have come together, and the rice seedlings in the fields have scorched and withered. So we have prayed to the mountains and rivers and made offerings to the kami. But we have seen no result, and even now the people are suffering. Truly it is my lack of virtue that has brought this disaster. I wish to spread kindness and mercy, to save the people from their troubles. Let the provinces and districts review the cases of people wrongly imprisoned. Let them cover exposed bones and bury the rotting dead. Let wine be forbidden and the slaughter of animals stopped. As for the aged, widowers and widows, orphans and the childless old, and the monks, nuns, men, and women of the capital who lie sick and cannot support themselves, give them relief as each one needs. Let gifts also be given to all civil and military officials who hold posts. I declare a general amnesty throughout the realm.”
○六月Rokugatsu甲辰朔kinoe-tatsu tsuitachi。廃朝Chō o yamu。以百官官人Hyakkan no kannin … o motte患疫也eki o wazurau … nari。
6th month, 1st day. Court was suspended, because the officials of the hundred offices were sick with the epidemic.
Sixth month, first day. Court was suspended, because the officials of all the government offices were sick with the epidemic.
○癸丑Mizunoto-ushi。散位San'i従四位下ju-shii no ge大宅朝臣大国Ōyake no Ason Ōkuni卒shussu。
6th month, 10th day. Ōyake no Ōkuni, without post, junior fourth rank, lower grade, died.
Tenth day. Ōyake no Ōkuni, who held rank but no post, died.
○甲寅Kinoe-tora。太宰大弐Dazai no daini従四位下ju-shii no ge小野朝臣老Ono no Ason Oyu卒shussu。
6th month, 11th day. Ono no Oyu, Senior Assistant Governor-General of the Dazaifu, junior fourth rank, lower grade, died.
Eleventh day. Ono no Oyu, Senior Assistant Governor-General of the Dazaifu, died.
○辛酉Kanoto-tori。散位San'i正四位下shō-shii no ge長田王Nagata no Ōkimi卒shussu。
6th month, 18th day. Prince Nagata, without post, senior fourth rank, lower grade, died.
Eighteenth day. Prince Nagata, who held rank but no post, died.
○丙寅Hinoe-tora。中納言Chūnagon正二位shō-nii多治比真人県守Tajihi no Mahito Agatamori薨kōzu。左大臣Sadaijin正二位shō-nii嶋之子也Shima no ko nari。
6th month, 23rd day. Tajihi no Agatamori, Middle Counselor, senior second rank, died. He was the son of Shima, Minister of the Left, senior second rank.
Twenty-third day. Tajihi no Agatamori, Middle Counselor, died. He was the son of Shima, Minister of the Left.
○秋七月Aki shichigatsu丁丑hinoto-ushi。賑給… ni shinkyū su大倭Yamato。伊豆Izu。若狭Wakasa no三国mitsu no kuni no飢疫百姓kieki no hyakusei ni。」散位San'i従四位下ju-shii no ge大野王Ōno no Ōkimi卒shussu。
Autumn, 7th month, 5th day. Relief (grants of rice and goods) was given to the common people suffering famine and epidemic in the three provinces of Yamato, Izu, and Wakasa. Prince Ōno, without post, junior fourth rank, lower grade, died.
Autumn, seventh month, fifth day. Relief was given to the common people suffering from famine and epidemic in three provinces: Yamato, Izu, and Wakasa. Prince Ōno, who held rank but no post, died.
○壬午Mizunoe-uma。賑給… ni shinkyū su伊賀Iga。駿河Suruga。長門Nagato no三国mitsu no kuni no疫飢之民ekiki no tami ni。
7th month, 10th day. Relief (grants of rice and goods) was given to the people suffering epidemic and famine in the three provinces of Iga, Suruga, and Nagato.
Tenth day. Relief was given to the people suffering from epidemic and famine in three provinces: Iga, Suruga, and Nagato.
○乙酉Kinoto-tori。参議Sangi兵部卿hyōbukyō従三位ju-sanmi藤原朝臣麻呂Fujiwara no Ason Maro薨kōzu。贈太政大臣Zō daijō daijin不比等之Fuhito no第四子也daishi no ko nari。
7th month, 13th day. Fujiwara no Maro, Councillor and Minister of War, junior third rank, died. He was the fourth son of Fuhito, posthumously granted [the title of] Chancellor.
Thirteenth day. Fujiwara no Maro, Councilor and Minister of War, died. He was the fourth son of Fuhito, who was named Chancellor after his death.
○己丑Tsuchinoto-ushi。散位San'i従四位下ju-shii no ge百済王郎虞Kudara no Konikishi Rōgu卒shussu。
7th month, 17th day. Kudara no Konikishi Rōgu, without post, junior fourth rank, lower grade, died.
Seventeenth day. Kudara no Konikishi Rōgu, who held rank but no post, died.
- His family name means “Kings of Paekche.” They descended from the royal house of Paekche, a Korean kingdom destroyed in 660, whose nobles had settled in Japan.
○乙未Kinoto-hitsuji。大赦天下Tenka ni taisha su。詔曰Mikotonori shite iwaku。比来Konogoro。縁有疫気多発ekiki ōku okoru koto aru ni yorite。祈祭神祇jingi ni kisai suredomo。猶未得可nao imada ka naru koto o ezu。而今右大臣Shikaru ni ima udaijin。身体有労shintai ni rō ari。寝膳不穏shinzen odayaka narazu。朕以惻隠Chin sokuin o motte。可大赦天下tenka ni taisha shite … beshi、救此病苦kono byōku o sukuu。[...]
7th month, 23rd day. A general amnesty was declared throughout the realm. The edict said: Recently, because epidemic qi has broken out widely, we have prayed and made rites to the kami (the gods of heaven and earth), but have not yet obtained success [a response?]. And now the Minister of the Right suffers in his body; his sleeping and eating are not at ease. I, out of compassion, shall declare a general amnesty throughout the realm, to save him from this suffering of illness. All crimes from capital offences downward, committed before dawn on the 22nd day of the 7th month of Tenpyō 9, shall all be pardoned and removed. Those who have committed the eight outrages, private coining of money, and the two thefts of robbery and stealing, and those whom an ordinary amnesty does not pardon, are all not within the scope of the amnesty.
Twenty-third day. A general amnesty was declared throughout the realm. The emperor said: “Lately the epidemic qi has been breaking out widely. We have prayed and made offerings to the kami, but we have still found no relief. And now the Minister of the Right is ill, and he cannot sleep or eat in peace. Out of pity for him, I declare a general amnesty throughout the realm to save him from this suffering.”
○丁酉Hinoto-tori。勅Choku shite、遣… o tsukawashite左大弁sadaiben従三位ju-sanmi橘宿禰諸兄Tachibana no Sukune Moroe。右大弁udaiben正四位shō-shii紀朝臣男人Ki no Ason Ohito o。就右大臣第udaijin no tei ni tsukite。授正一位shō-ichii o sazuke、拝左大臣sadaijin ni hai su。即日Sokujitsu薨kōzu。遣… o tsukawashite従四位下ju-shii no ge中臣朝臣名代等Nakatomi no Ason Nashiro ra、監護喪事sōji o kango seshimu。所須官給Mochiiru tokoro wa kan yori tamau。武智麻呂Muchimaro wa、贈太政大臣zō daijō daijin不比等之Fuhito no第一子也daiichi no ko nari。
25th day. By decree, the Controller of the Left, junior third rank, Tachibana no Moroe, and the Controller of the Right, senior fourth rank, Ki no Ohito, were sent to the residence of the Minister of the Right, to grant him senior first rank and appoint him Minister of the Left. That same day he died. Junior fourth rank, lower grade, Nakatomi no Nashiro and others were sent to oversee the funeral affairs. What was needed was supplied by the government. Muchimaro was the first son of Fuhito, posthumously made Chancellor.
Twenty-fifth day. The emperor sent Tachibana no Moroe, Controller of the Left, and Ki no Ohito, Controller of the Right, to the house of the Minister of the Right. There they granted him the highest court rank and appointed him Minister of the Left. He died that same day. Nakatomi no Nashiro and others were sent to oversee the funeral, and the government supplied whatever was needed. Muchimaro was the eldest son of Fuhito, who was named Chancellor after his death.
○八月Hachigatsu壬寅朔mizunoe-tora tsuitachi。中宮大夫Chūgū no daibu兼ken右兵衛率uhyōe no kami正四位下shō-shii no ge橘宿禰佐為Tachibana no Sukune Sai卒shussu。
8th month, 1st day. The Master of the Empress's Household and Commander of the Right Watch, senior fourth rank, lower grade, Tachibana no Sai died.
Eighth month, first day. Tachibana no Sai, Master of the Household of the Emperor’s Mother and Commander of the Right Watch, died.
○癸卯Mizunoto-u。命… ni meijite四畿内Shikinai二監nigen及七道諸国oyobi shichidō no shokoku。僧尼sōni wa清浄沐浴shōjō ni mokuyoku shi。一月之内hitotsuki no uchi ni二三度ni-sando、令読最勝王経Saishōō kyō o yomashimu。又月六斎日Mata tsuki no rokusainichi ni wa、禁断殺生sesshō o kindan su。
2nd day. It was ordered that in the four Home Provinces, the two supervised districts [two Overseer offices?], and the provinces of the Seven Circuits, monks and nuns purify themselves and bathe, and two or three times within a month be made to read the Golden Light Sutra. Also, on the six fast days of the month, the killing of living things was prohibited.
Second day. An order went out to the four Home Provinces, the two supervised districts, and the provinces of the Seven Circuits. Monks and nuns were to purify themselves and bathe, and to read the Golden Light Sutra two or three times a month. On the six fast days of each month, the killing of living things was forbidden.
- That is, the whole country: the provinces around the capital, two small districts with their own supervisors, and the rest of Japan, grouped into seven regional circuits.
○丙午Hinoe-uma。参議Sangi式部卿shikibukyō兼ken太宰帥Dazai no sochi正三位shō-sanmi藤原朝臣宇合Fujiwara no Ason Umakai薨kōzu。贈太政大臣Zō daijō daijin不比等之Fuhito no第三子也daisan no ko nari。
5th day. The Councillor, Minister of Ceremonial and Governor-General of the Dazaifu, senior third rank, Fujiwara no Umakai died. He was the third son of Fuhito, posthumously made Chancellor.
Fifth day. Fujiwara no Umakai, Councilor, Minister of Ceremonial, and Governor-General of the Dazaifu, died. He was the third son of Fuhito, who was named Chancellor after his death.
○甲寅Kinoe-tora。詔曰Mikotonori shite iwaku。朕Chin、君臨宇内udai ni kunrin shite、稍歴多年yaya tanen o fu。而風化尚壅Shikaru ni fūka nao fusagari。黎庶未安reisho imada yasukarazu。通旦忘寐Ashita ni itaru made ine o wasure。憂労在茲yūrō koko ni ari。又自春已来Mata haru yori konokata、災気遽発saiki niwaka ni okorite。天下百姓tenka no hyakusei、死亡shibō実多makoto ni ōshi。百官人等Hyakkan no hito ra、闕卒kessotsu不少sukunakarazu。良由朕之不徳Makoto ni chin ga futoku ni yorite、致此災殃kono saiō o itaseri。仰天慚惶Ten o aogite zankō shi。不敢寧処aete yasunji orazu。故Yue ni可優復百姓hyakusei o yūfuku shite … beshi使得存済zonsai suru koto o eshimu。免天下今年租賦Tenka no konnen no sofu … o menzu及百姓宿負公私稲oyobi hyakusei no shukufu no kōshi no ine。公稲限八年以前Ōyake no ine wa hachinen izen o kagiri。私稲七年以前watakushi no ine wa shichinen izen。其在諸国Sono shokoku ni arite、能起風雨yoku fūu o okoshi、為国家有験kokka no tame ni shirushi aru神kami no、未預幣帛者imada heihaku ni azukarazaru mono wa。悉入供幣之例kotogotoku kyōhei no rei ni ireyo。給… ni … o tamau大宮主Ōmiyanushi・御巫mikannagi。坐摩御巫Ikasuri no mikannagi。生島御巫Ikushima no mikannagi及諸神祝部等oyobi moromoro no kami no hafuribe ra ni爵shaku o。
13th day. The edict said: I have reigned over all within the universe [the realm?] for gradually many years. Yet moral transformation is still obstructed, and the multitudes are not yet at peace. Through the night until dawn I forget sleep; my anxiety and toil lie in this. Also, since spring, calamitous qi has suddenly broken out. Of the common people of the realm, those who have died are truly many. Among the hundred officials, those lost through death are not few. Truly it is because of my lack of virtue that this calamity has been brought about. Looking up to Heaven, I am ashamed and fearful. I dare not dwell at ease. Therefore the common people should be generously exempted, so that they may be able to survive. Exempt this year's land tax and levies throughout the realm, and the common people's old debts of public and private rice. For public rice, the limit is (loans made) before year 8; for private rice, before year 7. Those kami in the provinces who can raise wind and rain and have shown efficacy for the state, but have not yet been granted offerings, shall all be entered into the list of those receiving offerings. Grant rank [titles?] to the Ōmiyanushi, the mikannagi [shrine maidens], the Ikasuri mikannagi, the Ikushima mikannagi, and the hafuribe [shrine priests] of the various kami.
Thirteenth day. The emperor said: “I have ruled the realm for many years now. Yet my good influence still does not reach the people, and the common folk are not at peace. I lie awake all night until dawn, and this is what weighs on me. Then, since spring, a calamitous qi has suddenly broken out. Truly many of the common people of the realm have died, and not a few officials have died too, leaving their posts empty. Truly it is because of my lack of virtue that this disaster has come. I look up to Heaven in shame and dread, and I dare not rest at ease. So let the common people be generously relieved, so that they can survive. This year’s taxes are cancelled throughout the realm. So is the rice the common people owe on public and private loans: for public rice, loans made up to the eighth year [736], and for private rice, up to the seventh [735]. Some kami in the provinces can raise wind and rain and have shown their power on behalf of the state, yet have not received offerings. All of them shall be added to the list of those that do. And let ranks be granted to the chief palace priest, the shrine maidens of the palace, of Ikasuri, and of Ikushima, and the priests of all the kami.”
○丙辰Hinoe-tatsu。為天下太平Tenka taihei … no tame ni、国土安寧kokudo annei。於宮中一十五処kyūchū no jūgo tokoro ni oite。請僧七百人sō shichihyakunin o shōjite。令転大般若経Daihannya kyō … o tenzeshimu。最勝王経Saishōō kyō。度四百人Shihyakunin o do su。四畿内七道諸国Shikinai, shichidō no shokoku ni五百七十八人gohyaku shichijū hachinin。
15th day. For the great peace of the realm and the tranquility of the land, in fifteen places within the palace, seven hundred monks were invited and made to recite [turn the pages of?] the Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra and the Golden Light Sutra. Four hundred persons were ordained; in the provinces of the four Home Provinces and the Seven Circuits, five hundred and seventy-eight persons.
Fifteenth day. For the peace of the realm and the calm of the land, seven hundred monks were invited to fifteen places in the palace, where they read the Great Perfection of Wisdom Sutra and the Golden Light Sutra. Four hundred people were ordained, and 578 more in the Home Provinces and the provinces of the Seven Circuits.
是年春Kono toshi no haru。疫瘡大発ekisō ōi ni okoru。初自筑紫来Hajime Tsukushi yori kitari。経夏natsu o he渉秋aki ni wataru。公卿以下Kugyō ika天下百姓tenka no hyakusei。相継没死aitsuide botsushi suru koto不可勝計agete kazou bekarazu。近代以来Kindai yori konokata、未之有也imada kore arazaru nari。
In the spring of this year, epidemic sores broke out greatly. At first they came from Tsukushi. Passing through summer and crossing into autumn, from the high nobles down to the common people of the realm, those who died one after another could not be counted. Since recent ages, there has never been the like of it.
In the spring of this year the epidemic sores broke out on a great scale. They came first from Tsukushi [Kyushu]. Through the summer and on into autumn, from the high nobles down to the common people of the realm, people died one after another, more than could be counted. Nothing like it had happened in recent times.
Questions a reader might ask, with short answers and the sections they rest on. Not yet checked.
What happens
Where did the epidemic start?
In the provinces under the Dazaifu, the government headquarters for Kyushu, the island nearest Korea. The year-end note for 737 says the sores came first from Tsukushi, that is, Kyushu.
What was the disease called, and what was it?
The chroniclers call it epidemic sores, and later pea sores, commonly called mogasa, after the pea-sized blisters. Most historians identify it as smallpox.
What was the court's first response in 735?
The emperor ordered offerings to the kami, readings of the Diamond Sutra, relief and medicines for the sick, and purification rites by the governors. He also let the Kyushu provinces stop sending tax goods to the capital.
Who were the four Fujiwara brothers, and what happened to them?
Fusasaki, Maro, Muchimaro and Umakai were sons of Fujiwara no Fuhito and held high posts in the government. All four died in 737, between the fourth and eighth months.
How bad did things get at the capital in 737?
Court was suspended because officials in every government office were sick. People died, from high nobles to commoners, more than could be counted, and officials' posts were left empty.
What kinds of help did the government give?
Practical relief, such as grain, medicines and the cancelling of taxes and rice loans, alongside offerings to the kami, sutra readings by hundreds of monks, and general amnesties for prisoners.
What happened to the embassy sent to Silla?
When it came back in early 737, its ambassador had died at Tsushima, an island between Korea and Kyushu, and the vice-ambassador was too ill to enter the capital. Kyushu's Dazaifu received foreign envoys, so travelers from overseas reached Japan there first.
Read section 6
Thinking further
Why does the emperor blame himself?
Following Chinese ideas, rulers believed Heaven sent disasters when a ruler lacked virtue. So Shōmu says his lack of virtue brought the disaster and answers with mercy, through relief, amnesties and rites.
Why was a general amnesty declared for the Minister of the Right?
The emperor pardoned prisoners out of pity for the sick Muchimaro, hoping the act of mercy would save him. Two days later Muchimaro was given the highest rank and made Minister of the Left, and he died that same day.
Who and what this source names, in the original. Each name links to every source in the library that mentions it. Not yet checked.
Ideas
- burial and the dead How the dead were buried, or could not be, during an epidemic. Sections 7, 10, 21.
- epidemic, plague, pestilence The words the writers themselves used for an epidemic: Greek loimos and nosos, Latin pestis, pestilentia and mortalitas, Chinese 疫 yi, Japanese 疫瘡 "epidemic sores". Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 10, 11, 16, 17, 20, 27.
- Heaven and the ruler’s virtue Rulers in China and Japan believed that Heaven sent disasters when a ruler lacked virtue, and answered by blaming themselves and showing mercy through relief, amnesties, and rites. Sections 3, 10, 25.
- kami (神祇) The gods and spirits of Japanese tradition, worshiped at shrines. Many people believed that kami who were angered or neglected could send disease. Sections 1, 8, 10, 20, 25.
- qi (氣) The vital breath or energy that Chinese thinkers saw in the body and in the world. Sections 1, 20, 25.
- relief for the sick and poor Help given by rulers, churches or neighbors: food, medicine, tax relief, care. Sections 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 10, 16, 17, 25.
- rich and poor Whether the epidemic struck rich and poor alike. Sections 27.
- road-feast rites (道饗祭) Offerings made where roads entered the capital or a province, to stop evil spirits, and the diseases they brought, from coming in. Sections 1.
- shamans and priests (巫祝) Religious healers who treated illness by contacting spirits or by prayer; widely consulted alongside doctors in early China. Sections 25.
- sutra readings Rulers in East Asia ordered monks to read Buddhist scriptures aloud, believing the readings would protect the country and drive away disease and disaster. Sections 1, 9, 23, 26.
People
- Abe no Tsugumaro (阿倍継麻呂) Ambassador to Silla, who died at Tsushima on the way home. Sections 6.
- Emperor Shōmu (聖武天皇) Emperor of Japan from 724 to 749, who reigned through the epidemic of 735–737. Sections 10, 20, 25.
- Fujiwara no Fuhito (藤原不比等) Leading court statesman, father of the four Fujiwara brothers who died in 737. Sections 7, 18, 21, 24.
- Fujiwara no Fusasaki (藤原房前) Second son of Fuhito; Councilor and Minister of People's Affairs. Sections 7.
- Fujiwara no Maro (藤原麻呂) Fourth son of Fuhito; Councilor and Minister of War. Sections 18.
- Fujiwara no Muchimaro (藤原武智麻呂) Eldest son of Fuhito; Minister of the Right, made Minister of the Left on the day he died. Sections 20, 21.
- Fujiwara no Umakai (藤原宇合) Third son of Fuhito; Minister of Ceremonial and Governor-General of the Dazaifu. Sections 24.
- Ki no Ohito (紀男人) Controller of the Right in 737. Sections 21.
- Kudara no Konikishi Rōgu (百済王郎虞) Courtier descended from the royal house of Paekche. Sections 19.
- Mibu no Utamaro (壬生宇太麻呂) Senior secretary of the embassy to Silla. Sections 6.
- Nakatomi no Nashiro (中臣名代) Courtier sent to oversee Muchimaro's funeral. Sections 21.
- Ōkura no Maro (大蔵麻呂) Junior secretary of the embassy to Silla. Sections 6.
- Ono no Oyu (小野老) Senior Assistant Governor-General of the Dazaifu and a poet of the Man'yōshū. Sections 13.
- Ōtomo no Minaka (大伴三中) Vice-ambassador to Silla, who fell ill on the way home. Sections 6.
- Ōyake no Ōkuni (大宅大国) Courtier who held rank but no post. Sections 12.
- Prince Nagata (長田王) Prince who held rank but no post. Sections 14.
- Prince Ōno (大野王) Prince who held rank but no post. Sections 16.
- Tachibana no Moroe (橘諸兄) Controller of the Left in 737, later Minister of the Left. Sections 21.
- Tachibana no Sai (橘佐為) Master of the Household of the Emperor's Mother and brother of Tachibana no Moroe. Sections 22.
- Tajihi no Agatamori (多治比県守) Middle Counselor, son of Tajihi no Shima. Sections 15.
- Tajihi no Shima (多治比嶋) Minister of the Left under Emperor Monmu. Sections 15.
Places
- Dazaifu (大宰府, also 太宰府) The government headquarters for Kyushu and its provinces. Sections 1, 2, 5, 8, 13, 24.
- Heijō-kyō (平城京), Nara The capital of Japan from 710 to 784. Sections 6, 10.
- Iga (伊賀) Province just east of the capital region. Sections 17.
- Izu (伊豆) Province on the Izu Peninsula. Sections 16.
- Nagato (長門) Province at the western tip of Honshu, facing Kyushu. Sections 1, 17.
- Silla (新羅) A kingdom on the Korean peninsula; its capital was at modern Gyeongju. Sections 6.
- Suruga (駿河) Province on the Pacific coast of central Japan. Sections 17.
- Tsukushi (筑紫) Old name for northern Kyushu, often used for the whole island. Sections 27.
- Tsushima (津嶋, 対馬) An island in the strait between Korea and Kyushu. Sections 6.
- Wakasa (若狭) Province on the Sea of Japan coast north of the capital. Sections 16.
- Yamato (大倭) The home province of the capital. Sections 16.
Page images of the original object or of the printed edition, from the libraries and archives that hold them. The pages shown are copied here where the holder marks them public domain; titles link to the holder's own viewer. Click a page to see it full size.
Kokushi taikei, vol. 2, Shoku Nihongi, Tokyo 1897
National Diet Library Digital Collections (pid 991092). pp. 199–214 (Book 12). Public Domain Mark.
The printed edition our text follows.
![Kokushi taikei, vol. 2, Shoku Nihongi, Tokyo 1897: pp. 198–199; section [1] is on p. 199](../media/oial-p07/facs-1.jpg)
pp. 198–199; section [1] is on p. 199 ![Kokushi taikei, vol. 2, Shoku Nihongi, Tokyo 1897: pp. 200–201; section [4] is on p. 201](../media/oial-p07/facs-2.jpg)
pp. 200–201; section [4] is on p. 201 ![Kokushi taikei, vol. 2, Shoku Nihongi, Tokyo 1897: pp. 214–215; the year-end note [27]](../media/oial-p07/facs-3.jpg)
pp. 214–215; the year-end note [27]
Other translations of this passage. Links go to copies that are free to read online.
Emperor Shōmu: Early Years, 724–737. A Translation from Shoku Nihongi
Ross Bender, 2024. English. In copyright; not free online.
The whole passage.
続日本紀 (上) 全現代語訳 (Kōdansha gakujutsu bunko)
Ujitani Tsutomu 宇治谷孟, 1992. Modern Japanese. In copyright.
The whole passage.
Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645–900
William Wayne Farris, 1985. English. In copyright; not free online.
Selected entries, quoted and paraphrased.
Difficulty: Moderate, plain sentences, but many names and offices; the notes on kami and the ruler's virtue carry the context.
Fits these units
- Case Study: Smallpox. How did a terrifying disease become the only one ever eradicated?
- Governments, Quarantine, and Consent. When may authorities restrict people to stop a disease?
- Faith and Catastrophe. How did religious believers respond, and did responses differ?
Key vocabulary
- epidemic
- an outbreak of disease that spreads quickly through many people at once
- kami
- the gods and spirits of Japanese tradition, worshiped at shrines
- sutra
- a Buddhist scripture, often read aloud for protection or blessing
- edict
- a formal order or announcement from a ruler
- amnesty
- a pardon granted to many prisoners at once
- relief
- food, goods, or money given by a government to people in need
- court rank
- an official's place in the order of the court, which decided pay and privileges
- virtue
- moral goodness; here, the goodness a ruler was expected to show, believed to keep the realm in order
Questions
- Comprehension
List the things the court did in response to the epidemic between 735 and 737. Which were religious, which were practical, and which fit neither group?
- Analysis (reliability)
These records were kept by government officials and edited into a history sixty years later. Whose experiences do they record in detail, and whose do they leave out? What can and can't they tell us about how ordinary people suffered?
- Analysis
In his edicts of the fifth and eighth months of 737, the emperor says that his own lack of virtue brought the disaster. Why might a ruler say this, and what did he do in response?
- Connection
Read the Board of Health notice of 1831 (P36). Compare what each government believed it could do against an epidemic and whom each expected to act.
Activity
Students build a timeline of the entries from 735 to 737 on a long strip of paper, marking each entry as a religious response, practical relief, an amnesty, a death, or a report. In small groups they then write a short memo as officials in the eighth month of 737, advising the emperor what to do next and pointing to the record so far as their evidence.
New translation from the Classical Chinese text of the Shoku Nihongi, Book 12, in the Kokushi taikei edition (Tokyo, 1897), checked against images of its printed pages. Twenty-seven dated entries from 735 to 737 are given, with a few doubtful readings followed as printed.
About 87 percent of the passages excerpted.
- Original
- Source text extracted by code from the named edition and collated against it. Edition: Kokushi taikei 國史大系, vol. 2, Shoku Nihongi 續日本紀 (Tokyo: Keizai Zasshisha, 1897), Book 12, pp. 199–214. Page images: National Diet Library Digital Collections, pid 991092 (DOI 10.11501/991092), Public Domain Mark. Digital text: the Zōho Rikkokushi text (Asahi Shinbunsha, 1940) as transcribed by Kikuchi (kikuchi2.com/jodai/shokuall.html), extracted by code and collated against the 1897 page images for every kept unit; 17 corrections made by script so the file reads as the 1897 printing. Author's text only; no headnotes or reading marks copied.
- Japanese reading
- The Classical Chinese read aloud as Classical Japanese (kundoku), the way the Shoku Nihongi is read in Japan, romanized in modified Hepburn with macrons. Pronunciation follows modern Japanese, not Nara-period sounds. Drafted by Claude (Anthropic) and checked unit by unit in a separate review. Not yet reviewed by a specialist.
- Close English
- Working literal draft, machine-drafted, not edited for publication
- Simplified English
- Drafted by Claude (Anthropic) from the original and checked unit by unit against the original in a separate review, then compared with earlier translations and tested for borrowed wording.
- Editor’s review
- Not yet.
- Specialist review
- Not yet. Readings a specialist should confirm are listed for later review.
- Rights
- Original: public domain. Edition: public domain.
Sources for the notes
- Shoku Nihongi 續日本紀. Book 12 (entries for 735–737, pages 199–214). In Kokushi taikei 國史大系, vol. 2. Tokyo: Keizai Zasshisha, 1897. National Diet Library Digital Collections, pid 991092. https://doi.org/10.11501/991092.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). "About Smallpox" and "How Smallpox Spreads." Pages dated October 22, 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/about/index.html; https://www.cdc.gov/smallpox/causes/index.html.
- Isoda Michifumi. "The History of Infectious Disease in Japan: Origins of the World's Best Hygiene Awareness—The Mysterious Relationship between the Japanese and the God of Pestilence." Japan Policy Forum, no. 61, September 25, 2020. https://www.japanpolicyforum.jp/society/pt2020092516494210739.html. (Translated from Bungei shunjū, July 2020; Farris's mortality estimate.)
- Mühlemann, Barbara, Lasse Vinner, Ashot Margaryan, et al. "Diverse Variola Virus (Smallpox) Strains Were Widespread in Northern Europe in the Viking Age." Science 369, no. 6502 (2020): eaaw8977. Abstract.
- Naoki Kōjirō 直木孝次郎. "Shoku Nihongi" 続日本紀. In Nihon daihyakka zensho (Nipponika) 日本大百科全書(ニッポニカ). Tokyo: Shōgakukan. Kotobank. Accessed October 5, 2026. https://kotobank.jp/word/%E7%B6%9A%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E7%B4%80-80186. (The years covered, the forty books, the compilers, and the presentation in 797.)
- Rod-ari, Melody. "Death, Disease, and Buddhist Patronage in Japan: The Great Smallpox Epidemic of 735." In Teaching About Asia in a Time of Pandemic, edited by David Kenley, 42–48. Ann Arbor, MI: Association for Asian Studies, 2020. Reports the mortality estimate of William Wayne Farris, Population, Disease, and Land in Early Japan, 645–900 (1985), 66.