The Great Mortality in Paris, 1348–1349

Anno Domini mcccxlviii percussa est gens Franciae et quasi totius mundi, et hoc alio modo quam per bellum. Nam sicut fames, ut dictum est in principio, et bella, ut dictum est in processu hujus narrationis, affuerant, ita pestilentiae et tribulationes in diversis mundi partibus iterum acciderunt.

In the year of the Lord 1348 the people of France and of almost the whole world was struck, and this in another way than by war. For just as famine, as was said in the beginning, and wars, as was said in the course of this narrative, had been present, so pestilences and tribulations happened again in various parts of the world.

In the year of our Lord 1348 the people of France, and of almost the whole world, were struck down, and not by war. Famine had come, as I said at the beginning, and wars, as I told as this account went on. Now pestilences and troubles came again in many parts of the world.

Unde eodem anno mcccxlviii in mense augusti, visa fuit quaedam stella supra Parisius, versus partem occidentalem, magna et clara valde, post horam vesperam, adhuc lucente sole et tendente ad occasum; et haec erat non multum longe, sicut sunt caeterae, a nostro hemisphaerio elevata, imo videbatur propinqua satis. Et factum est ut, sole occidente et nocte appropinquante, dicta stella, me et multis aliis fratribus eam aspicientibus, non videbatur de uno loco se movere. Tandem nocte jam veniente, nobis videntibus et multum admirantibus, dicta stella valde grossa in plures et diversos radios est dispersa; quae radios fere Parisius et versus orientem projiciens, totaliter disparuit, et ex integro annullata fuit. Unde an fuerit una cometa, vel alia, aut ex aliquibus exhalationibus formata, et tandem in vaporibus resoluta, astronomorum judicio derelinquo. Possibile tamen est quod ipsa fuit praesagium pestilentiae futurae admirandae, quae satis cito, ut dicam, Parisius et per totam Franciam sicut alibi secuta est.

So in the same year 1348, in the month of August, a certain star was seen above Paris, toward the western part, very large and bright, after the hour of vespers, the sun still shining and tending toward its setting; and it was not raised very far from our hemisphere, as the others are, rather it seemed quite near. And it happened that, the sun setting and night approaching, the said star, while I and many other brothers [friars] were looking at it, did not seem to move from one place. At last, night now coming, while we watched and greatly wondered, the said very large star was dispersed into many and different rays; which, throwing rays almost [over?] Paris and toward the east, totally disappeared and was entirely annulled. Whether it was a comet, or something else, or formed from some exhalations and finally dissolved into vapors, I leave to the judgment of astronomers. It is possible, however, that it was a presage of the astonishing pestilence to come, which quite soon, as I shall tell, followed at Paris and through all France as elsewhere.

In August of that same year, 1348, a star was seen over Paris, toward the west. It was very large and bright. It appeared after vespers,1 while the sun was still shining and going down. It did not seem set high above our part of the sky, as the other stars are, but seemed quite close. As the sun set and night came on, I and many other friars watched it, and it did not seem to move from its place. At last, when night had come, while we watched in great wonder, this very large star broke up into many separate rays. It cast its rays out over Paris and toward the east, then vanished completely and was gone. Was it a comet, or something else? Was it formed from exhalations2 and finally dissolved into vapors? I leave that to the judgment of astronomers. Still, it may have been a sign of the astonishing pestilence that soon followed, as I will tell, in Paris and all over France, as it did elsewhere.

1. The evening prayer service, held late in the afternoon.
2. Vapors thought to rise from the earth and sometimes catch fire in the sky. Medieval scholars debated whether comets were such vapors.

Unde in eodem anno Parisius et in regno Franciae, et non minus, ut fertur, in diversis mundi partibus, et in sequenti anno, fuit tanta mortalitas hominum utriusque sexus, et magis juvenum quam senum, quod vix poterant sepeliri, et vix ultra duos vel tres dies in infirmitate jacebant, sed subito et quasi sani moriebantur; unde qui hodie erat sanus, cras mortuus, ad foveam portabatur. Habebant enim subito bossas sub assellis vel in inguine, quibus insurgentibus erat infallibile signum mortis; et haec infirmitas seu pestilentia a medicis epidemia vocabatur.

So in the same year at Paris and in the kingdom of France, and no less, as is reported, in various parts of the world, and in the following year, there was such a mortality of people of both sexes, and more of the young than of the old, that they could scarcely be buried; and they scarcely lay more than two or three days in sickness, but died suddenly and as if healthy; so that he who was healthy today, tomorrow dead, was carried to the pit. For they suddenly had swellings under the armpits or in the groin, which, when they rose up, were an infallible sign of death; and this sickness or pestilence was called epidemic by the doctors.

That year in Paris and the kingdom of France, and no less, people say, in many parts of the world, and in the following year, there was such a mortality of men and women, more young than old, that they could hardly be buried. They were seldom sick more than two or three days. They died suddenly, while they seemed almost healthy. Someone healthy today was carried to the grave dead tomorrow. They suddenly got swellings under the armpits or in the groin, and when these rose up, they were a sure sign of death. The doctors called this sickness or pestilence an epidemic.

Tanta autem abundantia populi tunc, videlicet anno Domini mcccxlviii et mcccxlix decessit, quod nunquam auditum, neque visum, neque lectum fuit in temporibus retroactis. Et veniebat mors praedicta et infirmitas ex imaginatione vel societate ad invicem et contagione; nam qui sanus aliquem visitabat infirmum, vix aut raro mortis periculum evadebat. Unde in multis villis parvis et magnis sacerdotes timidi recedebant, religiosis aliquibus magis audacibus administrationem dimittentes, et breviter in multis locis de viginti hominibus non remanserant duo viventes.

Such an abundance of people died then, namely in the year of the Lord 1348 and 1349, that it was never heard, nor seen, nor read in times past. And the said death and sickness came from imagination or from company with one another and contagion; for whoever, healthy, visited someone sick hardly or rarely escaped the danger of death. So in many towns small and large the timid priests withdrew, leaving the ministry to some bolder members of religious orders; and in short, in many places of twenty people not two remained living.

So many people died then, in the years of our Lord 1348 and 1349, that nothing like it had ever been heard of, seen, or read about in times past. This death and sickness came from imagination,3 or from people keeping company with one another, and from contagion. Anyone healthy who visited a sick person hardly ever escaped the danger of death. So in many towns, small and large, the priests withdrew in fear. They left the care of souls to some members of religious orders who were bolder. In short, in many places not two out of twenty people were left alive.

3. Many believed that fear itself, or the mere sight of the sick, could bring on the disease.

Tanta enim fuit in Domo-Dei Parisius mortalitas, ut per magnum tempus, ultra quingenti mortui omni die ad coemeterium sancti Innocentii Parisius ad sepeliendum in curribus portabantur. Et istae sanctae sorores Domus-Dei, mori non timentes, dulcissime et humillime omni honore postposito pertractabant; quarum multiplex numerus dictarum sororum, saepius renovatus per mortem, in pace cum Christo, ut pie creditur, requiescit.

For so great was the mortality in the House of God [Hôtel-Dieu] at Paris that for a long time more than five hundred dead every day were carried in carts to the cemetery of Saint Innocent at Paris to be buried. And these holy sisters of the House of God, not fearing to die, handled [the sick] most sweetly and most humbly, all honor set aside; of whom the manifold number of the said sisters, renewed more often through death, rests in peace with Christ, as is piously believed.

At the Hôtel-Dieu4 in Paris the mortality was so great that for a long time more than five hundred dead were carried in carts every day to the cemetery of the Holy Innocents in Paris for burial. The holy sisters of the Hôtel-Dieu were not afraid to die. They cared for the sick most tenderly and humbly, setting all pride aside. Many of these sisters died and were replaced again and again. They rest in peace with Christ, as we devoutly believe.

4. The main hospital of Paris, run by religious sisters. Géraud, the editor, thought “five hundred” a copyist’s error for “fifty.”

Dicta autem mortalitas, ut dicitur, inter incredulos inchoavit, deinde ad Italiam venit; postea montes pertransiens ad Avinionem accessit, ubi etiam aliquos dominos cardinales invasit; totam familiam abstulit tunc ab eis. Deinde per Vasconiam et Hispaniam paulative de villa ad villam, de vico ad vicum, et ultimo de domo ad domum, imo de persona ad personam inopinate ad has partes gallicanas accedens, usque ad Alemanniam transivit, minus tamen ad ipsos quam ad nos.

The said mortality, as is said, began among the unbelievers, then came to Italy; afterward, crossing the mountains, it reached Avignon, where it also attacked some lord cardinals; it took away their whole household then from them. Then through Gascony and Spain little by little, from town to town, from village to village, and lastly from house to house, indeed from person to person, unexpectedly coming to these Gallic parts, it passed on as far as Germany, less however to them than to us.

This mortality began, people say, among the unbelievers,5 and then came to Italy. Next it crossed the mountains and reached Avignon,6 where it struck some of the lord cardinals and carried off their whole households. Then it moved little by little through Gascony and Spain, from town to town, from village to village, then from house to house, and even from person to person. It came unexpectedly to these parts of France and passed on into Germany, though it hit them less hard than us.

5. That is, non-Christians. The writer does not say which peoples or lands he means.
6. The popes lived at Avignon, in what is now southern France, at this time.

Durante tamen epidemia dicta, Dominus tantam gratiam ex sua pietate conferre dignatus est, ut decedentes, quamquam subito, quasi omnes laeti mortem exspectabant. Nec erat aliquis quin confessus et cum viatico sacratissimo moreretur; et, quod plus ad bonum decedentium fuit, dominus papa Clemens VI, in quamplurimis civitatibus et castris, absolutionem a poena et culpa decedentibus per suos confessores dedit misericorditer et concessit; unde libentius moriebantur, haereditates multas et bona temporalia ecclesiis et religiosis dimittentes, quia proprios haeredes ante se mori videbant.

While the said epidemic lasted, however, the Lord out of his mercy deigned to confer such grace that the dying, although suddenly, almost all awaited death gladly. Nor was there anyone who did not die confessed and with the most holy viaticum; and, what was more for the good of the dying, the lord pope Clement VI, in very many cities and castles, mercifully gave and granted absolution from penalty and guilt to the dying through their confessors; so they died more willingly, leaving many inheritances and temporal goods to churches and religious, because they saw their own heirs die before them.

Yet while this epidemic lasted, the Lord in his mercy granted such grace that the dying, though they died suddenly, almost all awaited death with joy. No one died without confession and the most holy viaticum.7 And what did the dying still more good, the lord Pope Clement VI, in a great many cities and castles, mercifully granted them absolution from penalty and guilt8 through their confessors. So they died more willingly. They left many inheritances and worldly goods to churches and religious orders, because they had seen their own heirs die before them.

7. The Communion given to the dying.
8. Forgiveness of sins together with release from the punishment due for them after death. It was normally granted only on special occasions.

Dicebant quod haec pestilentia ex aeris infectione et aquarum oriebatur, quia tunc temporis non erat fames nec defectus victualium quorumcumque, sed abundantia magna. Unde ex hujus opinione aeris infecti et aquarum et mortis ita subitae, impositum fuit judaeis, quod ipsi puteos et aquas infecerant et aerem corruperant; propter quod mundus contra eos crudeliter insurrexit, in tantum quod, in Alemannia et alibi per diversas partes mundi ubi judaei habitabant, fuerunt trucidati et occisi a christianis, et cremati passim et indifferenter multa millia judaeorum. Et est mirandum de eorum et suarum uxorum fatua constantia; nam dum cremarentur, ne eorum parvuli ad baptismum convolarent, matres eorum primo in ignem projiciebant liberos, deinde post ipsos eaedem matres super ipsos in ignem se praecipitabant, ut cum maritis et eorum parvulis cremarentur.

They said that this pestilence arose from infection of the air and of the waters, because at that time there was no famine nor lack of foodstuffs of any kind, but great abundance. So from this opinion of infected air and waters and of death so sudden, it was imputed to the Jews that they had infected the wells and waters and corrupted the air; on account of which the world rose up cruelly against them, so much so that in Germany and elsewhere through various parts of the world where Jews lived, many thousands of Jews were slaughtered and killed by Christians and burned everywhere and indiscriminately. And one must wonder at the foolish constancy of them and their wives; for while they were being burned, lest their little ones should flee to baptism, their mothers first threw the children into the fire, then after them the same mothers threw themselves onto them into the fire, so that they would be burned with their husbands and their little ones.

People said that this pestilence came from infection of the air and the waters,9 because at that time there was no famine and no shortage of food of any kind, but great plenty. Because of this belief that the air and waters were infected, and because death came so suddenly, the Jews were accused of having infected the wells and waters and corrupted the air. For this the world rose against them cruelly. In Germany and elsewhere, in many parts of the world where Jews lived, Christians slaughtered and killed them. They burned many thousands of Jews everywhere, without distinction. The foolish steadfastness of the men and their wives is astonishing. While they were being burned, the mothers first threw their children into the fire, so that the little ones would not run to baptism. Then the same mothers threw themselves into the fire after them, to be burned with their husbands and children.

9. The belief that disease spread through foul or poisoned air, often from rot or swamps.

Multi etiam mali christiani fuerunt reperti, ut dicitur, qui similiter venena per puteos imponebant; sed revera tales intoxicationes, posito quod factae fuissent, non potuissent tantam plagam et tantum populum infecisse. Alia igitur fuit causa, ut puta, Dei voluntas, ut humores corrupti et aeris malitia seu terrarum; et forte tales potiones, si factae fuerunt in aliquibus locis, ad hoc potuerunt adjuvare. Duravit autem dicta mortalitas in istis partibus gallicanis per magnam partem anni xlviii et xlix; et tunc cessavit, multis villis campestribus et domibus in bonis villis quasi vacuis remanentibus et orbatis. Et tunc ceciderunt domus multae satis cito, et tales et ita solemnes; et plures ceciderunt Parisius, de quarum ruina minus quam de multis aliis apparebat.

Many bad Christians also were found, as is said, who likewise put poisons into wells; but in truth such poisonings, supposing they had been done, could not have infected so great a plague and so many people. There was therefore another cause, for example the will of God, or corrupted humors and the malice of the air or of the lands; and perhaps such potions, if they were made in some places, could have helped toward this. The said mortality lasted in these Gallic parts through a great part of the year [13]48 and [13]49; and then it ceased, many country towns and houses in good towns remaining almost empty and bereft. And then many houses fell down quite soon, and such and so splendid ones; and many fell at Paris, of whose ruin less appeared than of many others.

Many bad Christians were also found, people say, who put poisons in wells in the same way. But in truth such poisonings, even if they were done, could not have caused so great a plague or infected so many people. So there was another cause, such as the will of God, or corrupted humors10 and the evil of the air or of the earth. Perhaps such potions, where they were made, may have added to it. This mortality lasted in these parts of France for a great part of the years [13]48 and [13]49. Then it stopped, leaving many country villages, and many houses in good towns, almost empty and bereft. Soon after, many houses fell down, even fine and grand ones. Many fell in Paris, though the ruin there showed less than in many other places.

10. The four body fluids (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile) that doctors from Hippocrates to the 1800s believed had to stay in balance for health.

Cessante autem dicta epidemia, pestilentia et mortalitate, nupserunt viri qui remanserunt et mulieres ad invicem. Conceperunt uxores residuae per mundum ultra modum. Nulla sterilis efficiebatur; sed praegnantes hinc inde videbantur, et plures geminos pariebant, et aliquae tres infantes insimul vivos emittebant. Sed quod ultra modum admirationem facit, est quod dicti pueri nati post tempus illud mortalitatis supradictae et deinceps, dum ad aetatem dentium devenerunt, non nisi viginti dentes vel viginti duos in ore communiter habuerunt, cum ante dicta tempora homines de communi cursu triginta duos dentes sub et supra simul in mandibulis habuissent. Quid autem numerus iste dentium in post natis significet, multum miror; nisi dicatur, quod per talem et tantam mortalitatem hominum infinitorum, et successionem aliorum et reliquorum qui remanserant, mundus est quodammodo renovatus et saeculum, ut sic sit quaedam nova aetas.

When the said epidemic, pestilence and mortality ceased, the men who remained and the women married each other. The remaining wives throughout the world conceived beyond measure. None became barren; but pregnant women were seen here and there, and many bore twins, and some brought forth three children alive at once. But what causes wonder beyond measure is that the said children born after that time of the above-said mortality and thereafter, when they came to the age of teeth, commonly had only twenty or twenty-two teeth in the mouth, whereas before the said times people in the common course had had thirty-two teeth below and above together in the jaws. What this number of teeth in those born after signifies, I greatly wonder; unless it be said that through such and so great a mortality of countless people, and the succession of the others and the remnant who had remained, the world is in some way renewed, and the age, so that there is thus a kind of new age.

When this epidemic, pestilence, and mortality had ended, the men and women who were left married one another. Everywhere the surviving wives conceived beyond measure. None was barren; pregnant women were seen everywhere. Many bore twins, and some gave birth to three living children at once. But here is what is beyond all wonder. The children born after that time of mortality, and from then on, when they reached the age for teeth, commonly had only twenty or twenty-two teeth in their mouths. Before then, people had normally had thirty-two teeth, upper and lower together.11 I wonder very much what this number of teeth in those born afterward means. Perhaps the death of so many countless people, and the coming of the others who were left, has in some way renewed the world and the age. Then this would be a kind of new age.

11. Géraud notes that the chronicler Rigord had told the same story of teeth after the loss of the True Cross in 1187.

Sed, proh dolor! ex hujus renovatione saeculi non est mundus propter hoc in melius commutatus. Nam homines fuerunt postea magis avari et tenaces, cum multo plura bona quam antea possiderent; magis etiam cupidi et per lites, brigas et rixas atque per placita seipsos conturbantes. Nec per hujusmodi terribilem mortis pestem a Deo inflictam fuit pax inter reges et dominos reformata; quinimo inimici regis Franciae ac etiam Ecclesiae, fortiores et pejores quam ante, per mare et per terram guerras suscitaverunt, et mala ampliora ubique pullularunt. Et quod iterum mirabile fuit, nam cum omnis abundantia omnium bonorum esset, cuncta tamen cariora in duplo fuerunt, tam de rebus utensilibus quam de victualibus, ac etiam de mercimoniis et mercenariis, et agricolis et servis; exceptis aliquibus haereditatibus et domibus quae superfluae remanserant his diebus. Charitas etiam ab illo tempore refrigescere coepit valde, et iniquitas abundavit cum ignorantia et peccatis; nam pauci inveniebantur qui scirent aut vellent in domibus, villis et castris informare pueros in grammaticalibus rudimentis.

But, alas! from this renewal of the age the world was not for this reason changed for the better. For people were afterward more greedy and tight-fisted, though they possessed many more goods than before; more covetous too, and troubling themselves through lawsuits, brawls and quarrels and through pleas. Nor through such a terrible plague of death inflicted by God was peace restored between kings and lords; rather the enemies of the king of France and also of the Church, stronger and worse than before, stirred up wars by sea and by land, and greater evils sprouted everywhere. And what again was wonderful: for though there was every abundance of all goods, yet everything was dearer by double, both of utensils and of foodstuffs, and also of merchandise and hired men, and farmers and servants; except some inheritances and houses which had remained in surplus in these days. Charity also from that time began to grow very cold, and iniquity abounded with ignorance and sins; for few were found who knew how or were willing to instruct boys in the rudiments of grammar in houses, towns and castles.

But alas! The world was not changed for the better by this renewal of the age. Afterward people were more greedy and grasping, though they owned far more goods than before. They were also more covetous, and they troubled themselves with lawsuits, brawls, quarrels, and pleas in court. Nor did this terrible plague of death, sent by God, bring peace among kings and lords. Instead the enemies of the king of France and of the Church, stronger and worse than before, stirred up wars by sea and by land, and greater evils sprang up everywhere. And here is another wonder. Though there was plenty of every good thing, everything cost twice as much. This was true of tools and household goods and of food, and also of merchandise, hired workers, farmhands, and servants. The exceptions were some inheritances and houses, which were left over in plenty in those days. From that time on, charity also began to grow very cold, and wickedness abounded, with ignorance and sin. For few could be found in houses, towns, and castles who knew how, or were willing, to teach children the basics of grammar.12

12. The first stage of schooling, in Latin.