Where the months got their names

Anni certus modus apud solos semper Aegyptios fuit. aliarum gentium dispari numero pari errore nutabat, et ut contentus sim referendo paucarum morem regionum, Arcades annum suum tribus mensibus explicabant, Acarnanes sex, Graeci reliqui trecentis quinquaginta quattuor diebus annum proprium computabant.

A fixed measure of the year has always existed among the Egyptians alone. [The year] of other peoples wavered with an unequal number [and] an equal error, and, to be content with reporting the custom of a few regions, the Arcadians completed their year in three months, the Acarnanians in six, the rest of the Greeks reckoned their own year at three hundred fifty-four days.

Only the Egyptians have always had a fixed length for the year. Among other peoples the year wavered. Their numbers differed, but they were all equally wrong. To name the custom of just a few places, the Arcadians finished their year in three months and the Acarnanians in six. The rest of the Greeks counted their year as 354 days.

non igitur mirum in hac uarietate Romanos quoque olim auctore Romulo annum suum decem habuisse mensibus ordinatum, qui annus incipiebat a Martio, et conficiebatur diebus trecentis quattuor, ut sex quidem menses, id est Aprilis Iunius Sextilis September Nouember December, tricenum essent dierum, quattuor uero, Martius Maius Quintilis October, tricenis et singulis expedirentur, qui hodieque septimanas habent Nonas, ceteri quintanas.

It is therefore not surprising, in this variety, that the Romans too once, with Romulus as founder, had their year ordered in ten months; this year began from March and was completed in three hundred four days, so that six months, that is, April, June, Sextilis, September, November, December, were of thirty days each, but four, March, May, Quintilis, October, were completed with thirty-one each; these even today have the Nones on the seventh, the rest on the fifth.

So with all this variety it is no surprise that the Romans too once had a year of ten months, set up by Romulus.1 This year began with March and was 304 days long. Six months, April, June, Sextilis, September, November and December, had 30 days each. The other four, March, May, Quintilis and October, had 31 days each.2 These four still have their Nones3 on the seventh day; the rest have them on the fifth.

1. Romulus was the legendary founder and first king of Rome. Smith's Dictionary notes that ancient writers did not agree about the form of his year; some gave it twelve months.
2. Quintilis and Sextilis mean "fifth" and "sixth." They were later renamed July and August.
3. Each Roman month had three named days, the Kalends (the first), the Nones (the fifth or seventh) and the Ides (eight days after the Nones). Other days were counted backward from the next of these (Smith's Dictionary).

Haec fuit Romuli ordinatio, qui primum anni mensem genitori suo Marti dicauit. quem mensem anni primum fuisse uel ex hoc maxime probatur, quod ab ipso Quintilis quintus est, et deinceps pro numero nominabantur.

This was the ordering of Romulus, who dedicated the first month of the year to his father Mars. That this month was the first of the year is proved most of all from this, that counting from it Quintilis is fifth, and the following [months] were named according to [their] number.

This was Romulus's plan. He dedicated the first month of the year to his father, Mars.4 The clearest proof that March was the first month is that Quintilis is the fifth month counting from it, and the months after it were named by their numbers.

4. Mars was the Roman god of war. In the legend Livy reports, he was the father of Romulus and his twin Remus (History of Rome 1.4).

huius etiam prima die ignem nouum Vestae aris accendebant, ut incipiente anno cura denuo seruandi nouati ignis inciperet. eodem quoque ingrediente mense tam in regia curiisque atque flaminum domibus laureae ueteres nouis laureis mutabantur. eodem quoque mense et publice et priuatim ad Annam Perennam sacrificatum itur, ut annare perennareque commode liceat.

On the first day of this [month] also they lit a new fire on the altars of Vesta, so that as the year began, the care of keeping the renewed fire would begin again. As the same month came in, too, both in the Regia and the curiae and the houses of the flamens the old laurels were exchanged for new laurels. In the same month also people go, both publicly and privately, to sacrifice to Anna Perenna, so that they may happily pass the year and last through the years.

On the first day of this month they also lit a new fire on the altars of Vesta,5 so that the duty of guarding the renewed fire would start again with the new year. As the month began, the old laurel branches in the Regia, the halls of the curiae and the houses of the flamens6 were also replaced with fresh ones. In this month, too, people sacrifice to Anna Perenna, both for the city and at home, so that they may get safely through the year and on through many years.7

5. Vesta was the goddess of the hearth. Her fire in Rome was tended by the Vestal Virgins, her priestesses, and was meant never to go out (Smith's Dictionary).
6. The Regia was an ancient building beside the temple of Vesta. Curiae were the oldest divisions of the citizens, each with its own rites, and flamens were priests who each served one god (Fowler; Smith's Dictionary).
7. Macrobius links her name with annare and perennare, "to live through the year" and "to last for years." Fowler thought the goddess was probably made up from these words. Her festival was held on March 15.

hoc mense mercedes exsoluebant magistris, quas completus annus deberi fecit, comitia auspicabantur, uectigalia locabant, et seruis cenas adponebant matronae, ut domini Saturnalibus: illae, ut principio anni ad promptum obsequium honore seruos inuitarent, hi, quia gratiam perfecti operis exsoluerent.

In this month they paid out fees to teachers, which the completed year made due; they took the auspices for the elections; they leased out the public revenues; and the matrons set dinners before the slaves, as the masters [did] at the Saturnalia: they [the women], so that at the beginning of the year they might invite the slaves to ready obedience by the honor; these [the men], because they were paying thanks for work completed.

In this month they paid teachers their fees, which fell due when the year was over. They took the auspices for the elections8 and leased out the collection of public revenues.9 And the mistresses of households served dinner to their slaves, as the masters did at the Saturnalia.10 The women did it at the start of the year, to win the slaves' willing service by honoring them. The masters did it to thank them for work completed.

8. Before an election, an official watched for signs from the gods, at first in the flight of birds, to learn whether they approved.
9. The state did not collect most of its revenues itself. It leased the right to collect them to private contractors for a fixed sum (Smith's Dictionary).
10. The Saturnalia was a December festival. Slaves were let off work and feasted, and their masters waited on them at table (Smith's Dictionary). Macrobius sets his whole dialogue during this festival.

Secundum mensem nominauit Aprilem, ut quidam putant cum adspiratione quasi Aphrilem, a spuma quam Graeci ἀφρὸν uocant, unde orta Venus creditur, et hanc Romuli asserunt fuisse rationem, ut primum quidem mensem a patre suo Marte, secundum ab Aeneae matre Venere nominaret, et hi potissimum anni principia seruarent, a quibus esset Romani nominis origo, cum hodieque in sacris Martem patrem, Venerem genetricem uocemus.

He named the second month April, as some think, with an aspirate as if Aphrilis, from the foam which the Greeks call aphros, from which Venus is believed to have arisen; and they assert this was Romulus's reasoning: that he should name the first month from his father Mars, the second from Venus, mother of Aeneas, and that those from whom was the origin of the Roman name should above all keep the beginnings of the year, since even today in [our] rites we call Mars Father and Venus Mother.

He named the second month Aprilis. Some think the name was first said with an h, as Aphrilis, from the sea foam that the Greeks call aphros, from which Venus is believed to have been born.11 They claim that this was Romulus's reasoning. He named the first month after his father, Mars, and the second after Venus, mother of Aeneas. He wanted the gods from whom the Roman people came to hold the start of the year above all. Even today, in our rites, we call Mars "Father" and Venus "Mother."

11. Venus, the Roman goddess of love, was identified with the Greek Aphrodite. Ancient scholars disagreed about this explanation, as about most of the month names here.

alii putant Romulum uel altiore prudentia uel certi numinis prouidentia ita primos ordinasse menses ut, cum praecedens Marti esset dicatus deo plerumque hominum necatori, ut Homerus naturae conscius ait Ἆρες Ἄρες βροτολοιγὲ μιαιφόνε τειχεσιβλῆτα secundus Veneri dicaretur, quae uim eius quasi benefica leniret.

Others think that Romulus, either by deeper wisdom or by the foresight of some divine power, so arranged the first months that, since the preceding one was dedicated to Mars, a god for the most part a killer of men, as Homer, knowing [his] nature, says, "Ares, Ares, ruin of mortals, blood-stained, stormer of walls," the second should be dedicated to Venus, who, as if kindly, might soften his violence.

Others think that Romulus, through deeper wisdom or the guidance of some god, arranged the first months so that one would balance the other. The first was dedicated to Mars, a god who most often brings death to men. As Homer, who understood his nature, says, "Ares, Ares, ruin of men, stained with blood, stormer of walls!"12 So the second was dedicated to Venus, whose kindness might soften his violence.

12. Homer, Iliad 5.31, quoted in Greek. Ares is the Greek god the Romans identified with Mars.

sed Cingius in eo libro, quem de fastis reliquit, ait imperite quosdam opinari Aprilem mensem antiquos a Venere dixisse, cum nullus dies festus nullumque sacrificium insigne Veneri per hunc mensem a maioribus institutum sit, sed ne in carminibus quidem Saliorum Veneris ulla ut ceterorum caelestium laus celebretur.

But Cingius, in that book which he left on the calendar, says that some ignorantly suppose the ancients named the month April from Venus, since no feast day and no notable sacrifice to Venus was established by [our] ancestors in this month, and not even in the songs of the Salii is any praise of Venus celebrated, as of the other heavenly [gods].

But Cingius, in the book he left on the calendar,13 says that some people wrongly suppose the ancients named April after Venus. Our ancestors set up no feast day and no special sacrifice for Venus in this month. Even the hymns of the Salii,14 which praise the other gods of heaven, have no praise of Venus.

13. Probably Cincius, an antiquarian and a contemporary of Augustus, not the early historian of the same name (Fowler). Eyssenhardt spells the name Cingius.
14. The Salii were priests of Mars who danced through the city in March, carrying sacred shields and singing hymns (Smith's Dictionary).

Cingio etiam Varro consentit adfirmans nomen Veneris ne sub regibus quidem apud Romanos uel Latinum uel Graecum fuisse, et ideo non potuisse mensem a Venere nominari.

Varro also agrees with Cingius, affirming that the name of Venus, either Latin or Greek, did not exist among the Romans even under the kings, and that therefore the month could not have been named from Venus.

Varro15 agrees with Cingius. He states that the Romans did not know the name of Venus, in Latin or in Greek, even in the time of the kings, and so the month could not have been named after her.

15. Marcus Terentius Varro (116–about 27 BCE), a Roman scholar who wrote on the Latin language and on Roman antiquities (Teuffel).

sed cum fere ante aequinoctium uernum triste sit caelum et nubibus obductum, sed et mare nauigantibus clausum, terrae etiam ipsae aut aqua aut pruina aut niuibus contegantur, eaque omnia uerno, id est hoc mense, aperiantur, arbores quoque nec minus cetera, quae continet terra, aperire se in germen incipiant: ab his omnibus mensem Aprilem dici merito credendum est, quasi Aperilem, sicut apud Athenienses ἀνθεστηριὼν idem mensis uocatur ab eo, quod hoc tempore cuncta florescant.

But since generally before the spring equinox the sky is gloomy and covered with clouds, and the sea too is closed to sailors, [and] the lands themselves are covered with water or frost or snow, and all these things are opened in spring, that is, in this month, [and] trees too, and no less the other things the earth holds, begin to open themselves into bud: from all these it should rightly be believed that the month is called April, as if Aperilis, just as among the Athenians the same month is called Anthesterion, from this, that at this time all things flower.

Before the spring equinox the sky is usually gloomy and covered with clouds. The sea is closed to sailors, and the land itself is covered with water, frost or snow. All of this opens up in spring, that is, in this month. Trees, and everything else the earth holds, begin to open into bud. It is right to believe, then, that April takes its name from all this opening, as if it were Aperilis.16 In the same way the Athenians call this month Anthesterion,17 because everything flowers at this time.

16. From aperire, "to open." Varro and Verrius Flaccus gave this explanation too (Fowler), and Lewis and Short's Latin dictionary follows it.
17. The eighth month of the Athenian year, which began in midsummer, so it fell about February (Smith's Dictionary).

non tamen negat Verrius Flaccus hoc die postea constitutum, ut matronae Veneri sacrum facerent, cuius rei causam, quia huic loco non conuenit, praetereundum est.

Verrius Flaccus does not, however, deny that on this day it was later established that matrons should make a sacrifice to Venus; the reason for this, since it does not suit this place, must be passed over.

Verrius Flaccus, however, does not deny that a rule was made later that married women should sacrifice to Venus on this day.18 The reason does not belong here, so I will pass over it.

18. Verrius Flaccus was a scholar of the time of Augustus. The day is probably April 1, which a late Roman calendar calls the Veneralia, the festival of Venus (Fowler).

Maium Romulus tertium posuit. de cuius nomine inter auctores lata dissensio est. nam Fulvius Nobilior in fastis, quos in aede Herculis Musarum posuit, Romulum dicit, postquam populum in maiores iunioresque diuisit, ut altera pars consilio, altera armis rem publicam tueretur, in honorem utriusque partis hunc Maium, sequentem Iunium mensem uocasse.

Romulus placed May third. About its name there is wide disagreement among the authorities. For Fulvius Nobilior, in the calendar which he set up in the temple of Hercules of the Muses, says that Romulus, after he divided the people into elders and juniors, so that one part might guard the state by counsel, the other by arms, in honor of each part called this [month] Maius [and] the following month Iunius.

Romulus put May third. Writers disagree widely about its name. Fulvius Nobilior wrote about it in the calendar he set up in the temple of Hercules of the Muses. He says that Romulus divided the people into the elders (maiores) and the younger men (iuniores). One group was to guard the state with counsel and the other with arms. In honor of each group Romulus called this month Maius and the next Iunius.

sunt qui hunc mensem ad nostros fastos a Tusculanis transisse commemorent, apud quos nunc quoque uocatur deus Maius, qui est Iuppiter, a magnitudine scilicet ac maiestate dictus.

There are those who record that this month passed into our calendar from the people of Tusculum, among whom even now a god is called Maius, who is Jupiter, named of course from [his] greatness and majesty.

Some say this month came into our calendar from the people of Tusculum. There Jupiter is still called the god Maius, a name that comes, of course, from his greatness (magnitudo) and majesty (maiestas).

Cingius mensem nominatum putat a Maia, quam Vulcani dicit uxorem, argumentoque utitur, quod flamen Vulcanalis Kalendis Maiis huic deae rem diuinam facit. sed Piso uxorem Vulcani Maiestam non Maiam dicit uocari.

Cingius thinks the month was named from Maia, whom he says [was] the wife of Vulcan, and he uses as argument that the flamen of Vulcan performs a sacrifice to this goddess on the Kalends of May. But Piso says the wife of Vulcan is called Maiesta, not Maia.

Cingius thinks the month was named after Maia, who he says was the wife of Vulcan. As proof he points out that the priest of Vulcan makes a sacrifice to this goddess on the first of May. But Piso says that Vulcan's wife was called Maiesta, not Maia.

contendunt alii Maiam Mercurii matrem mensi nomen dedisse, hinc maxime probantes, quod hoc mense mercatores omnes Maiae pariter Mercurioque sacrificant.

Others contend that Maia, mother of Mercury, gave the month its name, proving it most of all from this, that in this month all merchants sacrifice to Maia and Mercury alike.

Others argue that Maia, the mother of Mercury, gave the month its name. Their main proof is that in this month all merchants sacrifice to Maia and Mercury together.

adfirmant quidam, quibus Cornelius Labeo consentit, hanc Maiam, cui mense Maio res diuina celebratur, terram esse hoc adeptam nomen a magnitudine, sicut et Mater Magna in sacris uocatur, adsertionemque aestimationis suae etiam hinc colligunt quod sus praegnans ei mactatur, quae hostia propria est terrae. et Mercurium ideo illi in sacris adiungi dicunt, quia uox nascenti homini terrae contactu datur: scimus autem Mercurium uocis et sermonis potentem.

Some affirm, and Cornelius Labeo agrees with them, that this Maia, to whom divine service is celebrated in the month of May, is the earth, having obtained this name from [her] greatness, just as she is also called Great Mother in the rites; and they gather support for their opinion also from this, that a pregnant sow is sacrificed to her, which is the victim proper to the earth. And they say Mercury is joined to her in the rites because voice is given to a newborn human by contact with the earth: and we know that Mercury is master of voice and speech.

Some people claim, and Cornelius Labeo agrees with them, that this Maia, who is worshiped in May, is the Earth. She got the name from her greatness (magnitudo), just as she is also called the Great Mother in our rites. They support their view with another fact: a pregnant sow is sacrificed to her, and that is the offering proper to the Earth. They also say that Mercury is joined with her in worship because a newborn child gets its voice from touching the earth, and we know that Mercury is the lord of voice and speech.

Iunius Maium sequitur aut ex parte populi, ut supra diximus, nominatus aut, ut Cingius arbitratur, quod Iunonius apud Latinos ante uocitatus, diuque apud Aricinos Praenestinosque hac appelatione in fastos relatus sit adeo ut, sicut Nisus in commentariis fastorum dicit apud maiores quoque nostros haec appelatio mensis diu manserit, sed post detritis quibusdam litteris ex Iunonio Iunius dictus sit. nam et aedes Iunoni Monetae Kalend. Iuniis dedicata est.

June follows May, named either from a part of the people, as we said above, or, as Cingius judges, because it was earlier called Iunonius among the Latins, and for a long time was entered in the calendars with this name among the people of Aricia and Praeneste, so much so that, as Nisus says in [his] commentaries on the calendar, among our ancestors too this name of the month remained a long time, but afterward, some letters having worn away, it was called Iunius from Iunonius. For the temple of Juno Moneta too was dedicated on the Kalends of June.

June follows May. It was named either after a part of the people, as I said above, or, as Cingius judges, because the Latins once called it Iunonius [after Juno]. The people of Aricia and Praeneste long kept this name in their calendars. As Nisus says in his notes on the calendar, our ancestors too kept this name of the month for a long time, but later some letters wore away and Iunonius became Iunius. Indeed, the temple of Juno Moneta was dedicated on the first of June.

non nulli putauerunt Iunium mensem a Iunio Bruto, qui primus Romae consul factus est, nominatum, quod hoc mense, id est Kalendis Iuniis, pulso Tarquinio sacrum Carnae deae in Caelio monte uoti reus fecerit. hanc deam uitalibus humanis praeesse credunt.

Some have thought the month of June was named from Junius Brutus, who was made the first consul at Rome, because in this month, that is, on the Kalends of June, after Tarquin was driven out, he, bound by a vow, made a sacrifice to the goddess Carna on the Caelian hill. They believe this goddess presides over the human vital organs.

Some have thought that June was named after Junius Brutus, who became the first consul of Rome.19 Their reason is that on the first of June, after Tarquin had been driven out, Brutus made a sacrifice he had vowed to the goddess Carna on the Caelian Hill. People believe that this goddess watches over the vital organs of the human body.

19. Lucius Junius Brutus led the overthrow of Tarquin the Proud, Rome's last king, and was one of the first two consuls (Livy, History of Rome 1.59–60).

ab ea denique petitur, ut iecinora et corda, quaeque sunt intrinsecus uiscera, salua conseruet: et quia cordis beneficio, cuius dissimulatione brutus habebatur, idoneus emendationi publici status extitit, hanc deam, quae uitalibus praeest, templo sacrauit.

In short, it is asked of her that she keep safe livers and hearts and the organs that are inside; and because by the benefit of the heart, by the hiding of which he was held to be dull, he proved fit for the reform of the public state, he consecrated with a temple this goddess who presides over the vital organs.

People pray to her to keep the liver, the heart and the other organs inside the body healthy. Brutus was thought dull-witted because he hid his good sense. But his heart made him fit to set the state right,20 so he dedicated a temple to this goddess of the vital organs.

20. Brutus means "dull" or "stupid" (Lewis and Short). Livy says Brutus pretended to be slow-witted to stay safe from the king and accepted the nickname (History of Rome 1.56). The heart stands for the good sense he hid.

cui pulte fabacia et larido sacrificatur, quod his maxime rebus uires corporis roborentur. nam et Kalendae Iuniae fabariae uulgo uocantur, quia hoc mense adultae fabae diuinis rebus adhibentur.

To her a sacrifice is made with bean porridge and lard, because by these things above all the strength of the body is built up. For the Kalends of June too are commonly called the Bean Kalends, because in this month the grown beans are used in divine rites.

She receives offerings of bean porridge and lard, because these foods above all build up the body's strength. And the first of June is commonly called the Bean Kalends, because in this month the ripe beans are used in religious rites.

Sequitur Iulius qui, cum secundum Romuli ordinationem, Martio anni tenente principium, Quintilis a numero uocaretur, nihilo minus tamen etiam post praepositos a Numa Ianuarium ac Februarium retinuit nomen, cum non uideretur iam quintus esse sed septimus. sed postea in honorem Iulii Caesaris dictatoris, legem ferente M. Antonio M. filio consule, Iulius appellatus est, quod hoc mense a. d. quartum Idus Quintilis Iulius procreatus sit.

July follows, which, although according to Romulus's ordering, with March holding the beginning of the year, it was called Quintilis from [its] number, nonetheless kept the name even after January and February were placed before [it] by Numa, though it no longer seemed to be fifth but seventh. But afterward, in honor of Julius Caesar the dictator, with the consul Marcus Antonius, son of Marcus, bringing the law, it was named Iulius, because in this month, on the fourth day before the Ides of Quintilis, Julius was born.

Next comes July. Under Romulus's plan, when March began the year, it was called Quintilis from its number, "fifth." It kept that name even after Numa put January and February in front of it, though it no longer seemed to be the fifth month but the seventh. But later it was named Iulius in honor of Julius Caesar the dictator, under a law proposed by the consul Mark Antony, son of Marcus.21 The reason was that Julius had been born in this month, on the fourth day before the Ides of Quintilis.

21. Mark Antony was consul in 44 BCE, the year Caesar was killed (Suetonius, Julius 79); Suetonius also records the month named after Caesar (Julius 76). Smith's Dictionary, citing Censorinus, dates the new name to that year. By Roman counting the birthday was July 12.

Augustus deinde est, qui Sextilis antea uocabatur, donec honori Augusti daretur ex senatus consulto, cuius uerba subieci: cum imperator Caesar Augustus mense Sextili et primum consulatum inierit, et triumphos tres in urbem intulerit, et ex Ianiculo legiones deductae secutaeque sint eius auspicia ac fidem, sed et Aegyptus hoc mense in potestatem populi Romani redacta sit, finisque hoc mense bellis ciuilibus inpositus sit, atque ob has causas hic mensis huic imperio felicissimus sit ac fuerit, placere senatui ut hic mensis Augustus appelletur. item plebiscitum factum ob eandem rem Sexto Pacuuio tribuno plebem rogante.

August is next, which was earlier called Sextilis, until it was given to the honor of Augustus by a decree of the senate, whose words I have added below: "Whereas the emperor Caesar Augustus in the month of Sextilis both entered on [his] first consulship and brought three triumphs into the city, and the legions [were] led down from the Janiculum and followed his auspices and good faith, and also Egypt in this month was brought into the power of the Roman people, and in this month an end was put to the civil wars, and for these reasons this month is and has been most fortunate for this empire, it pleases the senate that this month be called Augustus." Likewise a plebiscite was made for the same purpose, with Sextus Pacuvius, tribune, putting the question to the plebs.

August comes next. It was called Sextilis until a decree of the senate gave it in honor of Augustus. Here are the decree's words: "Whereas the emperor Caesar Augustus, in the month of Sextilis, entered on his first consulship and brought three triumphs into the city; and the legions were led down from the Janiculum to follow his command and his cause; and in this month Egypt was brought under the power of the Roman people, and in this month the civil wars were ended; and whereas for these reasons this month is and has been the most fortunate for this empire, the senate resolves that this month shall be called Augustus." A law of the people was also passed for the same purpose, on the motion of Sextus Pacuvius, tribune of the people.22

22. Suetonius says Augustus chose Sextilis rather than September, the month of his birth, because he won his first consulship and his greatest victories in it (Augustus 31). Smith's Dictionary dates the renaming to 8 BCE.

Mensis September principalem sui retinet appellationem: quem Germanici appellatione, Octobrem uero suo nomine Domitianus inuaserat.

The month September keeps its original name: [the month] which Domitian had seized for the name Germanicus, and October for his own name.

September keeps its original name. Domitian had taken it over for his title Germanicus, and October for his own name.23

23. The emperor Domitian took the title Germanicus after his triumphs. He gave his two names to September and October, the months in which he became emperor and was born (Suetonius, Domitian 13).

sed ubi infaustum uocabulum ex omni aere uel saxo placuit eradi, menses quoque usurpatione tyrannicae appellationis exuti sunt: cautio postea principum ceterorum, diri ominis infausta uitantium, mensibus a Septembri usque ad Decembrem prisca nomina reseruauit.

But when it was decided that the ill-omened name be erased from every bronze or stone, the months too were stripped of the usurpation of the tyrant's name: afterward the caution of the other emperors, avoiding the ill luck of a dreadful omen, kept the old names for the months from September to December.

But when it was decided to erase that ill-omened name from every bronze and stone, the months too were stripped of the tyrant's names he had seized. Later emperors were careful to avoid anything of such dreadful omen, and their caution kept the old names for the months from September to December.

Haec fuit a Romulo annua ordinata dimensio qui, sicut iam supra diximus, annum decem mensium, dierum uero quattuor et trecentorum habendum esse constituit, mensesque ita disposuit, ut quattuor ex his tricenos singulos, sex uero tricenos haberent dies.

This was the yearly measure ordered by Romulus, who, as we already said above, decided that the year should be held to be of ten months, but of three hundred and four days, and arranged the months so that four of them had thirty-one days each, but six thirty each.

This was the measure of the year that Romulus set up. As I said before, he decided that the year should have ten months and 304 days. He arranged the months so that four of them had 31 days and six had 30.

sed cum is numerus neque solis cursui neque lunae rationibus conueniret, non numquam usu ueniebat, ut frigus anni aestiuis mensibus et contra calor hiemalibus proueniret, quod ubi contigisset, tantum dierum sine ullo mensis nomine patiebantur absumi, quantum ad id anni tempus adduceret, quo caeli habitus instanti mensi aptus inueniretur.

But since this number fitted neither the course of the sun nor the reckonings of the moon, it sometimes happened that the cold of the year came in the summer months and, on the contrary, the heat in the winter [months]; when this had happened, they allowed as many days to be used up without any name of a month as would bring [them] to that time of year in which the state of the sky would be found fitting for the coming month.

But this number fit neither the course of the sun nor the reckoning of the moon. So it sometimes happened that the cold of the year came in the summer months, and the heat in the winter ones. When that happened, they let as many days as needed go by without any month's name, until the year reached the point where the weather suited the month that was due.

Sed secutus Numa, quantum sub caelo rudi et saeculo adhuc impolito solo ingenio magistro comprehendere potuit, uel quia Graecorum obseruatione forsan instructus est, quinquaginta dies addidit, ut in trecentos quinquaginta quattuor dies, quibus duodecim lunae cursus confici credidit, annus extenderetur.

But Numa, following, as far as he could understand under a rough sky and in an age still unpolished, with his own mind alone as teacher, or because he was perhaps instructed by the observation of the Greeks, added fifty days, so that the year was extended to three hundred fifty-four days, in which he believed twelve courses of the moon were completed.

Then came Numa,24 and he added fifty days. He did this as far as he could understand things, in a rough land and an age still unrefined, with only his own mind for a teacher. Or perhaps he had learned from the observations of the Greeks. With these days the year was stretched to 354 days, the time in which he believed the moon completes twelve cycles.

24. Numa Pompilius, by tradition the king who followed Romulus, was famed for his justice and piety. Livy rejects the story that the Greek philosopher Pythagoras taught him (History of Rome 1.18).

atque his quinquaginta diebus a se additis adiecit alios sex, retractos illis sex mensibus, qui triginta habebant dies, id est de singulis singulos, factosque quinquaginta et sex dies in duos nouos menses pari ratione diuisit,

And to these fifty days added by him he added six others, taken back from those six months that had thirty days, that is, one from each, and he divided the fifty-six days [so] made into two new months in equal proportion,

To these fifty days he added six more, taken from the six months that had 30 days, one from each. This made 56 days, which he divided equally into two new months.

ac de duobus priorem Ianuarium nuncupauit, primumque anni esse uoluit, tamquam bicipitis dei mensem respicientem ac prospicientem transacti anni finem futurique principia, secundum dicauit Februo deo, qui lustrationum potens creditur. lustrari autem eo mense ciuitatem necesse erat, quo statuit ut iusta dis Manibus soluerentur.

and of the two he called the first January, and wanted it to be first of the year, as the month of the two-headed god, looking back and looking forward to the end of the year past and the beginnings of the future one; the second he dedicated to the god Februus, who is believed to have power over purifications. And it was necessary for the city to be purified in that month in which he decreed that the rites owed to the gods Manes should be paid.

He named the first of the two Ianuarius and wanted it to be the first month of the year. It was the month of the two-headed god,25 who looks back at the end of the year just past and forward to the beginning of the next. He dedicated the second to the god Februus, who is believed to have power over purifications.26 The city had to be purified in the month in which he decreed that the rites owed to the spirits of the dead should be paid.

25. Janus, god of entrances, appears on Roman coins with two heads. Fowler notes that it is less certain that January was named after Janus than that March was named after Mars.
26. Lewis and Short derive February from februum, a means of purification. Fowler notes that it was also the month of the yearly rites for the dead.

Numae ordinationem finitimi mox secuti totidem diebus totidemque mensibus, ut Pompilio placuit, annum suum computare coeperunt, sed hoc solo discrepabant, quod menses undetricenum tricenumque numero alternauerunt.

The neighbors soon followed Numa's ordering and began to compute their year with as many days and as many months as Pompilius decided, but they differed in this alone, that they alternated the months in the number of twenty-nine and thirty.

The neighboring peoples soon followed Numa's plan. They began to count their year with as many days and as many months as Pompilius had chosen. They differed only in that their months alternated between 29 and 30 days.

paulo post Numa in honorem imparis numeri, secretum hoc et ante Pythagoram parturiente natura, unum adiecit diem, quem Ianuario dedit, ut tam in anno quam in mensibus singulis praeter unum Februarium impar numerus seruaretur. nam quia duodecim menses, si singuli aut pari aut impari numero putarentur, consummationem parem facerent, unus pari numero institutus uniuersam putationem imparem fecit.

A little later Numa, in honor of the odd number, a secret that nature was bringing forth even before Pythagoras, added one day, which he gave to January, so that both in the year and in the single months except February alone an odd number would be kept. For since twelve months, if each were reckoned either at an even or at an odd number, would make an even total, one set at an even number made the whole reckoning odd.

A little later Numa added one more day in honor of the odd number, a secret that nature revealed even before Pythagoras.27 He gave the day to January, so that the year and every month except February would have an odd number of days. If all twelve months had an even number of days, or all had an odd number, the total would be even. So one month with an even number made the whole count odd.

27. Many Romans held odd numbers to be luckier. Censorinus explains the year of 355 days the same way (quoted in Smith's Dictionary).

Ianuarius igitur Aprilis Iunius Sextilis September Nouember December undetricenis censebantur diebus, et quintanas Nonas habebant, ac post Idus in omnibus a. d. septimum decimum Kalendas computabatur.

January, therefore, April, June, Sextilis, September, November, December were reckoned at twenty-nine days, and had the Nones on the fifth, and after the Ides in all of them the count was [from] the seventeenth day before the Kalends.

So January, April, June, Sextilis, September, November and December were counted at 29 days. They had their Nones on the fifth, and in all of them the count after the Ides began at the seventeenth day before the next Kalends.

Martius uero Maius Quintilis et October dies tricenos singulos possidebant. Nonae in his septimanae erant, similiterque post Idus decem et septem dies in singulis usque ad sequentes Kalendas putabantur, sed solus Februarius uiginti et octo retinuit dies, quasi inferis et deminutio et par numerus conueniret.

But March, May, Quintilis and October possessed thirty-one days each. In these the Nones were on the seventh, and likewise after the Ides seventeen days were reckoned in each up to the following Kalends; but February alone kept twenty-eight days, as if both a lessening and an even number suited the [gods] below.

March, May, Quintilis and October had 31 days. Their Nones fell on the seventh, and here too seventeen days were counted after the Ides up to the next Kalends. Only February kept 28 days, as if both a shortening and an even number suited the gods of the underworld.

cum ergo Romani ex hac distributione Pompilii ad lunae cursum sicut Graeci annum proprium computarent, necessario et intercalarem mensem instituerunt more Graecorum.

Since, then, the Romans by this distribution of Pompilius computed their own year by the course of the moon, as the Greeks [did], they necessarily also instituted an intercalary month after the custom of the Greeks.

Under this arrangement of Pompilius the Romans counted their year by the course of the moon, as the Greeks did. So they also had to set up an intercalary month,28 after the Greek custom.

28. An extra month inserted from time to time to bring the calendar back into line with the seasons (Smith's Dictionary).

omni autem intercalationi mensis Februarius deputatus est, quoniam is ultimus anni erat, quod etiam ipsum de Graecorum imitatione faciebant. nam et illi ultimo anni sui mensi superfluos interserebant dies, ut refert Glaucippus, qui de sacris Atheniensium scripsit. uerum una re a Graecis differebant.

February was assigned to every intercalation, since it was the last of the year, which too they did in imitation of the Greeks. For they also inserted the surplus days in the last month of their year, as Glaucippus reports, who wrote on the rites of the Athenians. But in one thing they differed from the Greeks.

Every intercalation was assigned to February, since it was the last month of the year. This too they did in imitation of the Greeks, who also put their extra days into the last month of their year, as Glaucippus reports in his book on the rites of the Athenians. But the Romans differed from the Greeks in one thing.

nam illi confecto ultimo mense, Romani non confecto Februario sed post uicesimum et tertium eius diem intercalabant, terminalibus scilicet iam peractis. deinde reliquos Februarii mensis dies, qui erant quinque, post intercalationem subiungebant, credo uetere religionis suae more, ut Februarium omni modo Martius consequeretur.

For they [intercalated] when the last month was finished, the Romans not when February was finished but after its twenty-third day, the Terminalia, of course, having already been held. Then they joined the remaining days of the month of February, which were five, after the intercalation, I believe by an old custom of their religion, so that March should in every way follow February.

The Greeks added their days once the last month was over. The Romans added theirs before February was over, after its twenty-third day, once the Terminalia had been held.29 Then they put the remaining five days of February after the extra period. I believe they did this by an old religious custom of theirs, so that March would always follow February.

29. The Terminalia, on February 23, was the festival of Terminus, god of boundaries. Smith's Dictionary notes that it was held on the last day of the old Roman year.

Verum fuit tempus, cum propter superstitionem intercalatio omnis omissa est, non numquam uero per gratiam sacerdotum, qui publicanis proferri uel imminui consulto anni dies uolebant, modo auctio modo retractio dierum proueniebat, et sub specie obseruationis emergebat maior confusionis occasio.

But there was a time when, because of superstition, all intercalation was omitted, and sometimes, through the favor of the priests, who wanted the days of the year lengthened or shortened on purpose for the tax contractors, now an increase, now a reduction of days occurred, and under the appearance of [careful] observance a greater occasion of confusion arose.

There was a time, though, when superstition led them to leave out the intercalation altogether. At other times the priests, as a favor to the tax contractors, deliberately lengthened or shortened the year. Days were added at one time and taken away at another, and under a show of strict observance the confusion only grew.

sed postea C. Caesar omnem hanc inconstantiam temporum uagam adhuc et incertam in ordinem statae definitionis coegit, adnitente sibi M. Flauio scriba, qui scriptos dies singulos ita ad dictatorem retulit, ut et ordo eorum inueniri facillime posset, et inuento certus status perseueraret.

But afterward Gaius Caesar forced all this inconstancy of the times, still wandering and uncertain, into an order of fixed definition, with the help of Marcus Flavius the scribe, who reported the individual days, written out, to the dictator in such a way that both their order could be found very easily and, once found, a sure state would last.

Later, Gaius Caesar brought all this unsteady reckoning of time, still wandering and uncertain, into a fixed and settled order. He was helped by Marcus Flavius, a scribe, who wrote out each of the days for the dictator. Their order could then be found very easily and, once found, would stay fixed.

ergo C. Caesar exordium nouae ordinationis initurus dies omnes, qui adhuc confusionem poterant facere, consumpsit, eaque re factum est, ut annus confusionis ultimus in quadringentos quadraginta tres dies protenderetur. post hoc imitatus Aegyptios, solos diuinarum rerum omnium conscios ad numerum solis, qui diebus tricenis sexaginta quinque et quadrante cursum conficit, annum dirigere contendit.

So Gaius Caesar, about to make the beginning of the new ordering, used up all the days which could still cause confusion, and by this it came about that the last year of confusion was stretched to four hundred forty-three days. After this, imitating the Egyptians, the only ones who know all divine things, he strove to direct the year to the number of the sun, which completes its course in three hundred sixty-five days and a quarter.

So when Gaius Caesar was about to start the new order, he used up all the days that could still cause confusion. As a result the last year of confusion was stretched to 443 days.30 After this he followed the Egyptians, the only people who understand all things divine. He set out to fit the year to the number of the sun, which completes its course in 365 and a quarter days.

30. The year 46 BCE. Censorinus, quoted in Smith's Dictionary, makes it 445 days.

Iulius ergo Caesar decem dies obseruationi ueteri super adiecit, ut annum trecenti sexaginta quinque dies, quibus sol lustrat zodiacum, efficerent, et ne quadrans deesset, statuit, ut quarto quoque anno sacerdotes, qui curabant mensibus ac diebus, unum intercalarent diem, eo scilicet mense ac loco, quo etiam apud ueteres mensis intercalabatur, id est ante quinque ultimos Februarii mensis dies, idque bissextum censuit nominandum.

Julius Caesar, therefore, added ten days on top of the old practice, so that three hundred sixty-five days, in which the sun passes through the zodiac, would make up the year; and so that the quarter would not be lacking, he decided that every fourth year the priests who had charge of the months and days should intercalate one day, in that month, of course, and place where among the ancients too the month was intercalated, that is, before the last five days of the month of February; and he decreed that it be named the bissextum.

So Julius Caesar added ten days to the old count, to make a year of 365 days, the time the sun takes to pass through the zodiac. And so that the quarter day would not be lost, he ruled that every fourth year the priests in charge of the months and days should insert one day. It went into the same month and place where the ancients had inserted the extra month, before the last five days of February. He decreed that it should be called the bissextum.31

31. "Twice sixth": the sixth day before the Kalends of March was counted twice in a leap year (Lewis and Short). Hence "bissextile," an old name for a leap year (Smith's Dictionary).

dies autem decem, quos ab eo additos diximus, hac ordinatione distribuit. in Ianuarium et Sextilem et Decembrem binos dies inseruit, in Aprilem autem Iunium Septembrem Nouembrem singulos, sed neque mensi Februario addidit diem, ne deum inferum religio immutaretur, et Martio Maio Quintili Octobri seruauit pristinum statum, quod satis pleno erant numero, id est dierum singulorum tricenorumque.

And the ten days which we said were added by him he distributed in this ordering. Into January and Sextilis and December he inserted two days each, but into April, June, September, November one each; but to the month of February he added no day, so that the worship of the gods below would not be changed, and to March, May, Quintilis, October he kept the former state, because they were of a sufficiently full number, that is, of thirty-one days each.

He shared out the ten added days like this. He put two days each into January, Sextilis and December, and one each into April, June, September and November. He added no day to February, so as not to disturb the worship of the gods of the underworld. And he left March, May, Quintilis and October as they had been, because their number was already full, at 31 days.

nam ideo nouos dies circa finem cuiusque mensis inseruit, ubi finem omnium, quae in mense erant, repperit feriarum, adiectosque omnes a se dies fastos notauit, ut maiorem daret actionibus libertatem, et non solum nullum nefastum sed nec comitialem quemquam de adiectis diebus instituit, ne ambitionem magistratuum augeret adiectio.

For this reason he inserted the new days around the end of each month, where he found the end of all the festivals which were in the month; and he marked all the days added by him as fasti, to give greater freedom to legal business; and he made none of the added days not only nefastus but not even comitialis, so that the addition would not increase the ambition of the magistrates.

He put the new days near the end of each month, after all the month's festivals were over. He marked all the days he added as court days,32 to give more room for legal business. None of the added days was closed to business, and none was even made an assembly day, so that the extra days would not feed the ambitions of officials.

32. Roman calendars marked each day as fastus (legal business allowed), nefastus (not allowed) or comitialis (assemblies could meet). The calendars themselves were called fasti (Smith's Dictionary).

sic annum ciuilem Caesar habitis ad lunam dimensionibus constitutum edicto palam posito publicauit, et huc usque stare potuisset, ni sacerdotes sibi errorem nouum ex ipsa emendatione fecissent. nam cum oporteret diem, qui ex quadrantibus confit, quarto quoque anno confecto, antequam quintus inciperet intercalare, illi quarto non peracto sed incipiente intercalabant.

Thus Caesar published the civil year, established with its measurements taken by the moon, by an edict publicly posted, and it could have stood up to now, if the priests had not made for themselves a new error out of the correction itself. For when it was proper to intercalate the day which is made up of the quarters when each fourth year was completed, before the fifth should begin, they intercalated not when the fourth was finished but when it was beginning.

In this way Caesar set up the civil year, with its measurements set in relation to the moon [for the months], and published it in an edict posted for all to see. It could have stood unchanged to this day if the priests had not made a new error out of the reform itself. The day made up of the four quarter days should have been inserted when each fourth year was complete, before the fifth began. Instead, the priests inserted it at the start of the fourth year, not at its end.

hic error sex et triginta annis permansit, quibus annis intercalati sunt dies duodecim, cum debuerint intercalari nouem. sed hunc quoque errorem sero deprehensum correxit Augustus, qui annos duodecim sine intercalari die transigi iussit, ut illi tres dies, qui per annos triginta et sex uitio sacerdotalis festinationis excreuerant, sequentibus annis duodecim nullo die intercalato deuorarentur.

This error remained for thirty-six years, in which years twelve days were intercalated when nine should have been intercalated. But this error too, discovered late, Augustus corrected, who ordered twelve years to be passed without an intercalary day, so that those three days which had grown up over thirty-six years by the fault of the priests' haste would be swallowed up in the following twelve years with no day intercalated.

This error lasted for 36 years. In those years twelve days were inserted, when there should have been nine. This error too was discovered late, and Augustus corrected it. He ordered twelve years to pass without an extra day. In this way the three surplus days, which had piled up over 36 years through the priests' haste, would be used up in the next twelve years with no day inserted.

post hoc unum diem secundum ordinationem Caesaris quinto quoque anno incipiente intercalari iussit, et omnem hunc ordinem aereae tabulae ad aeternam custodiam incisione mandauit.

After this he ordered one day to be intercalated according to Caesar's ordering as each fifth year began, and he committed this whole ordering to the engraving of a bronze tablet for eternal keeping.

After that he ordered one day to be inserted, as Caesar had arranged, at the start of every fifth year.33 He had this whole arrangement engraved on a bronze tablet, to keep it safe forever.

33. That is, at the start of the year after each four-year cycle, as Caesar intended. The priests had misread his rule and inserted the day every third year (Smith's Dictionary).